grand
rapids
school
district
ball
argued
december
decided
july
petitioner
school
district
adopted
two
programs
shared
time
community
education
provide
classes
nonpublic
school
students
public
expense
classrooms
located
leased
nonpublic
schools
shared
time
program
offers
classes
regular
schoolday
intended
supplement
core
curriculum
courses
required
state
shared
time
teachers
employees
public
schools
significant
portion
previously
taught
nonpublic
schools
community
education
program
offers
classes
conclusion
regular
schoolday
voluntary
courses
offered
public
schools
others
community
education
teachers
public
school
employees
part
otherwise
employed
full
time
nonpublic
school
community
education
classes
held
private
schools
involved
programs
identifiably
religious
schools
students
attending
programs
students
otherwise
attend
particular
school
classes
held
respondent
taxpayers
filed
suit
federal
district
school
district
certain
state
officials
alleging
programs
violated
establishment
clause
first
amendment
made
applicable
fourteenth
amendment
agreed
entered
judgment
respondents
enjoined
operation
programs
appeals
affirmed
held
shared
time
community
education
programs
primary
principal
effect
advancing
religion
therefore
violate
dictates
establishment
clause
pp
even
praiseworthy
secular
purpose
providing
education
schoolchildren
validate
government
aid
parochial
schools
aid
effect
promoting
single
religion
religion
generally
aid
unduly
entangles
government
matters
religious
pp
challenged
programs
effect
impermissibly
promoting
religion
three
ways
first
teachers
influenced
pervasively
sectarian
nature
religious
schools
work
may
subtly
overtly
indoctrinate
students
particular
religious
tenets
public
expense
second
symbolic
union
church
state
inherent
provision
secular
public
instruction
religious
school
buildings
threatens
convey
message
state
support
religion
students
general
public
third
programs
effect
subsidize
religious
functions
parochial
schools
taking
substantial
portion
responsibility
teaching
secular
subjects
pp
brennan
delivered
opinion
marshall
blackmun
powell
stevens
joined
burger
post
post
filed
opinions
concurring
judgment
part
dissenting
part
white
post
rehnquist
post
filed
dissenting
opinions
kenneth
ripple
special
assistant
attorney
general
michigan
argued
cause
petitioners
briefs
william
farr
john
oostema
stuart
hubbell
frank
kelley
attorney
general
louis
caruso
solicitor
general
gerald
young
assistant
attorney
general
michael
mcconnell
argued
cause
pro
hac
vice
amicus
curiae
urging
reversal
brief
solicitor
general
lee
acting
assistant
attorney
general
willard
deputy
solicitor
general
bator
deputy
assistant
attorney
general
kuhl
anthony
steinmeyer
michael
jay
singer
dick
howard
argued
cause
respondents
brief
albert
dilley
briefs
amici
curiae
urging
reversal
filed
national
jewish
commission
law
public
affairs
colpa
nathan
lewin
dennis
rapps
daniel
chazin
catholic
conference
wilfred
caron
john
liekweg
briefs
amici
curiae
urging
affirmance
filed
american
jewish
congress
et
al
marc
stern
ronald
krauss
jack
novik
burt
neuborne
charles
sims
justin
finger
jeffrey
sinensky
americans
separation
church
state
lee
boothby
baptist
joint
committee
public
affairs
et
al
john
baker
justice
brennan
delivered
opinion
school
district
grand
rapids
michigan
adopted
two
programs
classes
nonpublic
school
students
financed
public
school
system
taught
teachers
hired
public
school
system
conducted
leased
classrooms
nonpublic
schools
nonpublic
schools
involved
programs
sectarian
religious
schools
case
raises
question
whether
programs
impermissibly
involve
government
support
sectarian
religious
activities
thus
violate
establishment
clause
first
amendment
issue
case
community
education
shared
time
programs
offered
nonpublic
schools
grand
rapids
michigan
programs
first
instituted
school
year
provide
classes
nonpublic
school
students
public
expense
classrooms
located
leased
local
nonpublic
schools
shared
time
program
offers
classes
regular
schoolday
intended
supplementary
core
curriculum
courses
state
michigan
requires
part
accredited
school
program
among
subjects
offered
remedial
enrichment
mathematics
remedial
enrichment
reading
art
music
physical
education
typical
nonpublic
school
student
attends
classes
one
two
class
periods
per
week
approximately
ten
percent
given
nonpublic
school
student
time
academic
year
consist
shared
time
instruction
americans
separation
church
state
school
dist
grand
rapids
supp
wd
although
shared
time
program
offered
nonpublic
schools
testimony
courses
included
program
offered
albeit
perhaps
somewhat
different
form
public
schools
well
classes
subject
case
taught
elementary
schools
exception
math
topics
remedial
mathematics
course
taught
secondary
schools
shared
time
teachers
employees
public
schools
often
move
classroom
classroom
course
schoolday
significant
portion
teachers
approximately
previously
taught
nonpublic
schools
many
assigned
nonpublic
school
previously
employed
school
district
grand
rapids
hires
shared
time
teachers
accordance
ordinary
hiring
procedures
ibid
public
school
system
apparently
provides
supplies
materials
equipment
used
connection
shared
time
instruction
see
app
community
education
program
offered
throughout
grand
rapids
community
schools
sites
children
well
adults
classes
issue
taught
nonpublic
elementary
schools
commence
conclusion
regular
schoolday
among
courses
offered
arts
crafts
home
economics
spanish
gymnastics
yearbook
production
christmas
arts
crafts
drama
newspaper
humanities
chess
model
building
nature
appreciation
district
found
lthough
certain
community
education
courses
offered
nonpublic
school
sites
offered
public
schools
community
education
basis
community
education
programs
otherwise
available
public
schools
usually
part
extensive
regular
curriculum
community
education
teachers
public
school
employees
community
education
courses
completely
voluntary
offered
students
enroll
teacher
necessary
attract
requisite
number
students
school
district
accords
preference
hiring
instructors
already
teaching
within
school
thus
virtually
every
community
education
course
conducted
facilities
leased
nonpublic
schools
instructor
otherwise
employed
full
time
nonpublic
school
ibid
programs
administered
similarly
director
program
public
school
employee
sends
packets
course
listings
participating
nonpublic
schools
school
year
begins
nonpublic
school
administrators
decide
courses
want
offer
director
works
academic
schedule
school
taking
account
inter
alia
varying
religious
holidays
celebrated
schools
different
denominations
nonpublic
school
administrators
decide
classrooms
used
programs
director
inspects
facilities
consults
shared
time
teachers
make
sure
facilities
satisfactory
public
school
system
pays
nonpublic
schools
use
necessary
classroom
space
entering
leases
rate
per
classroom
per
week
leases
however
contain
mention
particular
room
space
facility
leased
teachers
rooms
libraries
lavatories
similar
facilities
made
available
additional
charge
room
used
programs
free
crucifix
religious
symbol
artifact
although
religious
symbols
present
adjoining
hallways
corridors
facilities
used
connection
program
time
given
classroom
used
programs
teacher
required
post
sign
stating
public
school
classroom
however
signs
posted
outside
school
buildings
indicating
public
school
courses
conducted
inside
facilities
used
public
school
annex
although
petitioners
label
shared
time
community
education
students
public
school
students
students
attending
shared
time
community
education
courses
facilities
leased
nonpublic
school
students
attend
particular
school
otherwise
evidence
public
school
student
ever
attended
shared
time
community
education
class
nonpublic
school
district
found
hough
defendants
claim
shared
time
program
available
students
record
abundantly
clear
nonpublic
school
students
wearing
cloak
public
school
student
enroll
ibid
district
noted
hereas
public
school
students
assembled
public
facility
nearest
residence
students
religious
schools
assembled
basis
religion
without
consideration
residence
school
district
boundaries
thus
beneficiaries
wholly
designated
basis
religion
public
school
classes
contrast
ordinary
public
school
classes
largely
neighborhood
based
segregated
religion
schools
offered
forty
schools
programs
operate
sectarian
character
schools
course
vary
one
another
substantial
evidence
suggests
share
deep
religious
purposes
instance
parent
handbook
one
catholic
school
goals
catholic
education
god
oriented
environment
permeates
total
educational
program
christian
atmosphere
guides
encourages
participation
church
commitment
social
justice
continuous
development
knowledge
catholic
faith
traditions
teachings
theology
policy
statement
christian
schools
similarly
proclaims
sufficient
teachings
christianity
separate
subject
curriculum
word
god
must
force
educational
program
christian
schools
require
parents
seeking
enroll
children
either
subscribe
particular
doctrinal
statement
agree
children
taught
according
doctrinal
statement
district
found
schools
pervasively
sectarian
concluded
without
hesitation
purposes
schools
advance
particular
religions
substantial
portion
functions
subsumed
religious
mission
respondents
six
taxpayers
filed
suit
school
district
grand
rapids
number
state
officials
charged
shared
time
community
education
programs
violated
establishment
clause
first
amendment
constitution
made
applicable
fourteenth
amendment
everson
board
education
bench
trial
district
entered
judgment
merits
behalf
respondents
enjoined
operation
programs
applying
familiar
purpose
effect
entanglement
test
set
lemon
kurtzman
held
although
purpose
programs
secular
effect
distinctly
impermissible
relied
particular
fact
programs
issue
involved
publicly
provided
instructional
services
served
nonpublic
school
students
segregated
largely
religion
nonpublic
school
premises
also
noted
programs
conferred
direct
benefits
financial
otherwise
sectarian
institutions
finally
found
programs
necessarily
entailed
unacceptable
level
entanglement
political
administrative
public
school
systems
sectarian
schools
petitioners
appealed
judgment
district
appeals
sixth
circuit
divided
panel
appeals
affirmed
americans
separation
church
state
school
dist
grand
rapids
granted
certiorari
affirm
ii
first
amendment
guarantee
congress
shall
make
law
respecting
establishment
religion
cases
demonstrate
pledge
single
religion
designated
state
religion
committee
public
education
religious
liberty
nyquist
lemon
kurtzman
supra
mcgowan
maryland
also
mere
injunction
governmental
programs
discriminating
among
religions
unconstitutional
see
abington
school
district
schempp
mccollum
board
education
establishment
clause
instead
primarily
proscribes
sponsorship
financial
support
active
involvement
sovereign
religious
activity
nyquist
supra
see
also
walz
tax
justice
black
writing
everson
board
education
supra
stated
neither
state
federal
government
pass
laws
aid
one
religion
aid
religions
prefer
one
religion
another
tax
amount
large
small
levied
support
religious
activities
institutions
whatever
may
called
whatever
form
may
adopt
teach
practice
religion
since
everson
made
clear
guarantees
establishment
clause
apply
often
grappled
problem
state
aid
nonpublic
religious
schools
cases
goal
give
meaning
sparse
language
broad
purposes
clause
unduly
infringing
ability
provide
welfare
people
accordance
particular
circumstances
providing
education
schoolchildren
surely
praiseworthy
purpose
cases
consistently
recognized
even
praiseworthy
secular
purpose
validate
government
aid
parochial
schools
aid
effect
promoting
single
religion
religion
generally
aid
unduly
entangles
government
matters
religious
religion
throughout
history
provided
spiritual
comfort
guidance
inspiration
many
also
serve
powerfully
divide
societies
exclude
whose
beliefs
accord
particular
religions
sects
time
time
achieved
dominance
solution
problem
adopted
framers
consistently
recognized
jealously
guard
right
every
individual
worship
according
dictates
conscience
requiring
government
maintain
course
neutrality
among
religions
religion
way
make
room
wide
variety
beliefs
creeds
spiritual
needs
man
deem
necessary
sponsor
attitude
part
government
shows
partiality
one
group
lets
flourish
according
zeal
adherents
appeal
dogma
zorach
clauson
noted
test
first
articulated
lemon
kurtzman
supra
guides
general
nature
inquiry
area
mueller
allen
every
analysis
area
must
begin
consideration
cumulative
criteria
developed
many
years
three
tests
may
gleaned
cases
first
statute
must
secular
legislative
purpose
second
principal
primary
effect
must
one
neither
advances
inhibits
religion
board
education
allen
finally
statute
must
foster
excessive
government
entanglement
religion
walz
tax
lemon
kurtzman
often
true
school
aid
cases
dispute
first
test
district
appeals
found
purpose
community
education
shared
time
programs
manifestly
secular
see
also
find
reason
disagree
holding
therefore
go
consider
whether
primary
principal
effect
challenged
programs
advance
inhibit
religion
inquiry
must
begin
consideration
nature
institutions
programs
operate
private
schools
public
schools
operated
identifiably
religious
schools
true
school
may
share
characteristics
religious
schools
articulated
example
complaint
meek
pittenger
supra
see
also
lemon
kurtzman
supra
district
found
however
ased
upon
massive
testimony
exhibits
conclusion
inescapable
religious
institutions
receiving
instructional
services
public
schools
sectarian
sense
substantial
portion
functions
subsumed
religious
mission
see
hunt
mcnair
meek
pittenger
supra
purpose
many
schools
provide
integrated
secular
religious
education
walz
tax
assure
future
adherents
particular
faith
affirmative
dominant
policy
church
schools
religious
schools
sectarian
schools
subject
past
cases
secular
education
schools
provide
goes
hand
hand
religious
mission
reason
schools
existence
within
institution
two
inextricably
intertwined
lemon
kurtzman
supra
opinion
brennan
see
also
meek
pittenger
supra
board
education
allen
given
schools
case
thus
pervasively
sectarian
challenged
public
school
programs
operating
religious
schools
may
impermissibly
advance
religion
three
different
ways
first
teachers
participating
programs
may
become
involved
intentionally
inadvertently
inculcating
particular
religious
tenets
beliefs
second
programs
may
provide
crucial
symbolic
link
government
religion
thereby
enlisting
least
eyes
impressionable
youngsters
powers
government
support
religious
denomination
operating
school
third
programs
may
effect
directly
promoting
religion
impermissibly
providing
subsidy
primary
religious
mission
institutions
affected
although
establishment
clause
jurisprudence
characterized
absolutes
clause
absolutely
prohibit
indoctrination
beliefs
particular
religious
faith
see
stone
graham
per
curiam
meek
pittenger
supra
lemon
kurtzman
supra
state
must
certain
given
religion
clauses
subsidized
teachers
inculcate
religion
levitt
committee
public
education
religious
liberty
state
constitutionally
compelled
assure
activity
used
religious
indoctrination
engel
vitale
zorach
clauson
government
may
finance
religious
groups
undertake
religious
instruction
blend
secular
sectarian
education
indoctrination
permitted
occur
devastating
effects
right
individual
voluntarily
determine
believe
believe
free
coercive
pressures
state
time
tainting
resulting
religious
beliefs
corrosive
secularism
meek
pittenger
invalidated
statute
providing
loan
professional
staff
including
teachers
nonpublic
schools
provide
remedial
accelerated
instruction
guidance
counseling
testing
services
premises
nonpublic
schools
program
subjected
comprehensive
discriminating
continuing
state
surveillance
lemon
kurtzman
quoted
meek
supra
entail
unacceptable
risk
instructional
personnel
advance
religious
mission
schools
serve
meek
even
though
teachers
paid
state
potential
impermissible
fostering
religion
circumstances
although
somewhat
reduced
nonetheless
present
program
meek
sufficiently
monitored
simply
entailed
great
risk
indoctrination
programs
us
today
share
defect
identified
meek
respect
community
education
program
district
found
virtually
every
community
education
course
conducted
facilities
leased
nonpublic
schools
instructor
otherwise
employed
full
time
nonpublic
school
instructors
many
doubt
teach
religious
schools
precisely
adherents
controlling
denomination
want
serve
religious
community
zealously
expected
regular
schoolday
inculcate
students
tenets
beliefs
particular
religious
faiths
yet
premise
program
instructors
put
aside
religious
convictions
engage
entirely
secular
community
education
instruction
soon
schoolday
moreover
expected
religious
school
students
religious
school
classrooms
employed
advance
religious
purposes
official
schoolday
nonetheless
petitioners
asserted
community
education
classes
specifically
monitored
religious
content
app
question
dedicated
professional
religious
school
teachers
employed
community
education
program
attempt
good
faith
perform
secular
mission
conscientiously
cf
lemon
supra
nonetheless
substantial
risk
overtly
subtly
religious
message
expected
convey
regular
schoolday
infuse
supposedly
secular
classes
teach
school
danger
arises
public
employee
likely
deliberately
subvert
task
service
religion
rather
pressures
environment
might
alter
behavior
normal
course
wolman
walter
conflict
functions
inheres
situation
lemon
kurtzman
supra
shared
time
program
though
structured
somewhat
differently
nonetheless
also
poses
substantial
risk
indoctrination
important
difference
programs
instructors
shared
time
program
teachers
hired
public
schools
moreover
although
virtually
every
community
education
instructor
religious
school
teacher
significant
portion
shared
time
instructors
previously
worked
religious
schools
nonetheless
community
education
program
attempt
made
monitor
shared
time
courses
religious
content
app
thus
despite
differences
two
programs
holding
meek
controls
inquiry
respect
shared
time
well
community
education
shared
time
instructors
teaching
academic
subjects
religious
schools
courses
virtually
indistinguishable
courses
offered
regular
religious
schoolday
teachers
program
even
community
education
colleagues
performing
important
educational
services
schools
education
integral
part
dominant
sectarian
mission
atmosphere
dedicated
advancement
religious
belief
constantly
maintained
meek
pittenger
teachers
atmosphere
may
well
subtly
overtly
conform
instruction
environment
teach
students
perceive
instruction
provided
context
dominantly
religious
message
institution
thus
reinforcing
indoctrinating
effect
stated
meek
hether
subject
remedial
reading
advanced
reading
simply
reading
teacher
remains
teacher
danger
religious
doctrine
become
intertwined
secular
instruction
persists
unlike
types
aid
upheld
standardized
tests
committee
public
education
religious
liberty
regan
diagnostic
services
wolman
walter
supra
substantial
risk
programs
operating
environment
used
religious
educational
purposes
committee
public
education
religious
liberty
regan
supra
appeals
course
recognized
respondents
adduced
evidence
specific
incidents
religious
indoctrination
case
absence
proof
specific
incidents
dispositive
conducting
supposedly
secular
class
pervasively
sectarian
environment
religious
school
teacher
may
knowingly
unwillingly
tailor
content
course
fit
school
announced
goals
reason
believe
kind
ideological
influence
detected
reported
students
parents
school
system
students
presumably
attending
religious
schools
precisely
order
receive
religious
instruction
spending
balance
schoolday
classes
heavily
influenced
religious
perspective
little
motivation
ability
discern
improper
ideological
content
may
creep
shared
time
community
education
course
neither
parents
parochial
schools
cause
complain
effect
publicly
supported
instruction
advance
schools
sectarian
mission
public
school
system
incentive
detect
report
specific
incidents
improper
indoctrination
thus
lack
evidence
specific
incidents
indoctrination
little
significance
cases
recognized
establishment
clause
guards
direct
efforts
indoctrinate
youngsters
specific
religious
beliefs
government
promotes
religion
effectively
fosters
close
identification
powers
responsibilities
religious
denominations
attempts
inculcate
specific
religious
doctrines
identification
conveys
message
government
endorsement
disapproval
religion
core
purpose
establishment
clause
violated
see
lynch
donnelly
concurring
cf
abington
school
district
schempp
history
teaches
powerful
sects
groups
might
bring
fusion
governmental
religious
functions
concert
dependency
one
upon
end
official
support
state
federal
government
placed
behind
tenets
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orthodoxies
stated
larkin
grendel
den
mere
appearance
joint
exercise
legislative
authority
church
state
provides
significant
symbolic
benefit
religion
minds
reason
power
conferred
see
also
widmar
vincent
finding
effect
incidental
primary
confer
imprimatur
state
approval
religious
sects
practices
follows
important
concern
effects
test
whether
symbolic
union
church
state
effected
challenged
governmental
action
sufficiently
likely
perceived
adherents
controlling
denominations
endorsement
nonadherents
disapproval
individual
religious
choices
inquiry
kind
effect
must
conducted
particular
care
many
citizens
perceiving
governmental
message
children
formative
years
cf
widmar
vincent
supra
tilton
richardson
symbolism
union
church
state
likely
influence
children
tender
years
whose
experience
limited
whose
beliefs
consequently
function
environment
much
free
voluntary
choice
cases
recognized
sensitivity
symbolic
impact
union
church
state
grappling
problems
many
ways
parallel
face
today
mccollum
board
education
held
public
school
may
permit
religious
instruction
premises
part
school
program
even
participation
instruction
entirely
voluntary
even
instruction
conducted
nonpublic
school
personnel
yet
zorach
clauson
held
similar
program
conducted
premises
public
school
passed
constitutional
muster
difference
symbolic
impact
helps
explain
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cases
symbolic
connection
church
state
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program
presented
students
graphic
symbol
concert
union
dependency
church
state
see
zorach
supra
symbolic
union
conspicuously
absent
zorach
program
programs
challenged
case
religious
school
students
spend
typical
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moving
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school
public
school
classes
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place
religious
school
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largely
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students
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students
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religious
school
classes
public
school
classes
even
latter
successfully
kept
free
religious
indoctrination
one
commentator
written
pervasive
religious
atmosphere
makes
young
student
mind
lasting
imprint
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transcendental
central
facets
life
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institution
guide
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total
life
adjustments
undoubtedly
helps
stimulate
interest
religious
vocations
short
parochial
school
total
operation
serves
fulfill
secular
religious
functions
concurrently
two
completely
separated
support
part
activity
entails
support
disqualifying
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function
molding
religious
personality
young
student
giannella
religious
liberty
nonestablishment
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development
part
ii
nonestablishment
principle
harv
rev
judge
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second
circuit
companion
case
case
bar
stated
city
plan
public
school
teachers
far
appearance
concerned
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school
pace
halls
use
classrooms
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students
confer
teachers
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schools
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members
religious
orders
religious
school
appears
public
joint
enterprise
staffed
teachers
paid
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sponsor
others
public
felton
secretary
dept
everson
board
education
stated
tax
amount
large
small
levied
support
religious
activities
institutions
whatever
may
called
whatever
form
may
adopt
teach
practice
religion
one
exception
subsequent
cases
struck
attempts
make
payments
public
tax
dollars
directly
primary
secondary
religious
educational
institutions
see
committee
public
education
religious
liberty
nyquist
reimbursement
maintenance
repair
expenses
levitt
committee
public
education
religious
liberty
reimbursement
tests
lemon
kurtzman
salary
supplements
nonpublic
school
teachers
see
committee
public
education
religious
liberty
regan
permitting
public
subsidy
certain
routinized
recordkeeping
testing
services
performed
nonpublic
schools
required
state
law
aside
cash
payments
distinguished
two
categories
programs
public
funds
used
finance
secular
activities
religious
schools
otherwise
fund
resources
first
category
noted
well
established
every
law
confers
indirect
remote
incidental
benefit
upon
religious
institutions
reason
alone
constitutionally
invalid
committee
public
education
religious
liberty
nyquist
supra
roemer
maryland
public
works
board
hunt
mcnair
indirect
aid
cases
government
used
primarily
secular
means
accomplish
primarily
secular
end
primary
effect
advancing
religion
thus
found
rationale
upheld
programs
providing
loans
secular
textbooks
nonpublic
school
students
board
education
allen
see
also
wolman
walter
meek
pittenger
programs
providing
bus
transportation
nonpublic
school
children
everson
board
education
supra
second
category
cases
relied
establishment
clause
prohibition
forms
aid
provide
direct
substantial
advancement
sectarian
enterprise
wolman
walter
supra
direct
aid
cases
government
although
acting
secular
purpose
done
directly
supporting
religious
institution
rationale
struck
state
schemes
providing
tuition
grants
tax
benefits
parents
whose
children
attend
religious
school
see
sloan
lemon
committee
public
education
religious
liberty
nyquist
supra
programs
providing
loan
instructional
materials
used
religious
schools
see
wolman
walter
supra
meek
pittenger
supra
sloan
nyquist
aid
formally
given
parents
directly
religious
schools
wolman
meek
aid
assistance
rather
direct
contribution
public
funds
nonetheless
differences
form
insufficient
save
programs
whose
effect
indistinguishable
direct
subsidy
religious
school
thus
never
accepted
mere
possibility
subsidization
cases
demonstrate
sufficient
invalidate
aid
program
hand
effect
wholly
unimportant
establishment
clause
purposes
public
schools
gradually
take
entire
responsibility
teaching
secular
subjects
religious
school
premises
question
case
must
whether
effect
proffered
aid
direct
substantial
committee
public
education
religious
liberty
nyquist
supra
indirect
incidental
problem
like
many
problems
constitutional
law
one
degree
zorach
clauson
noted
past
religious
school
dual
functions
providing
students
secular
education
promotes
particular
religious
perspective
see
mueller
allen
board
education
allen
supra
meek
wolman
held
unconstitutional
state
programs
providing
loans
instructional
equipment
materials
religious
schools
ground
programs
advanced
primary
educational
function
sectarian
school
meek
supra
wolman
supra
cf
wolman
supra
upholding
provision
diagnostic
services
general
welfare
services
children
may
provided
state
regardless
incidental
benefit
accrues
schools
quoting
meek
supra
programs
challenged
provide
teachers
addition
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equipment
materials
similar
forbidden
effect
advancing
religion
kind
direct
aid
educational
function
religious
school
indistinguishable
provision
direct
cash
subsidy
religious
school
clearly
prohibited
establishment
clause
petitioners
claim
aid
like
textbooks
allen
flows
primarily
students
religious
schools
course
aid
religious
schools
ultimately
flows
students
petitioners
argument
accepted
validate
forms
nonideological
aid
religious
schools
including
explicitly
rejected
prior
cases
yet
meek
held
unconstitutional
loan
instructional
materials
religious
schools
wolman
rejected
fiction
similar
program
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masking
aid
individual
students
wolman
page
follows
fortiori
aid
includes
instructional
materials
also
provision
instructional
services
teachers
parochial
school
building
inescapably
primary
effect
providing
direct
substantial
advancement
sectarian
enterprise
meaningful
distinction
made
aid
student
aid
school
concept
loan
individuals
transparent
fiction
wolman
walter
supra
opinion
powell
petitioners
also
argue
subsidy
effect
significant
case
community
education
shared
time
programs
supplemented
curriculum
courses
previously
offered
religious
schools
required
school
rule
state
regulation
course
fails
distinguish
programs
found
unconstitutional
meek
see
meek
find
feature
program
controlling
first
way
knowing
whether
religious
schools
offered
courses
public
school
system
offered
first
distinction
courses
supplement
supplant
regular
curriculum
therefore
nearly
clear
petitioners
allege
second
although
precise
courses
offered
programs
may
new
participating
religious
schools
general
subject
matter
reading
mathematics
etc
surely
part
curriculum
past
concerns
establishment
clause
may
thus
triggered
despite
supplemental
nature
courses
cf
meek
pittenger
third
important
petitioners
argument
permit
public
schools
gradually
take
entire
secular
curriculum
religious
school
latter
surely
discontinue
existing
courses
might
replaced
year
two
later
community
education
shared
time
course
content
average
religious
school
student
instance
spends
schoolday
shared
time
classes
principled
basis
impose
limit
percentage
religious
schoolday
subsidized
public
school
let
genie
bottle
case
permit
ever
larger
segments
religious
school
curriculum
turned
public
school
system
thus
violating
cardinal
principle
state
may
effect
become
prime
supporter
religious
school
system
see
lemon
kurtzman
iii
conclude
challenged
programs
effect
promoting
religion
three
ways
instructors
influenced
pervasively
sectarian
nature
religious
schools
work
may
subtly
overtly
indoctrinate
students
particular
religious
tenets
public
expense
symbolic
union
church
state
inherent
provision
secular
instruction
religious
school
buildings
threatens
convey
message
state
support
religion
students
general
public
finally
programs
effect
subsidize
religious
functions
parochial
schools
taking
substantial
portion
responsibility
teaching
secular
subjects
reasons
conclusion
inescapable
community
education
shared
time
programs
primary
principal
effect
advancing
religion
therefore
violate
dictates
establishment
clause
first
amendment
nonpublic
schools
played
important
role
development
american
education
long
recognized
parents
children
right
choose
public
schools
available
sectarian
alternatives
chief
justice
noted
lemon
kurtzman
supra
othing
said
construed
disparage
role
elementary
secondary
schools
national
life
contribution
enormous
establishment
clause
rest
belief
union
government
religion
tends
destroy
government
degrade
religion
engel
vitale
therefore
constitution
decrees
religion
must
private
matter
individual
family
institutions
private
choice
involvement
entanglement
inevitable
lines
must
drawn
lemon
kurtzman
supra
controlling
constitutional
standards
become
firmly
rooted
broad
contours
inquiry
well
defined
committee
public
education
religious
liberty
nyquist
position
lines
become
quite
clear
requires
affirmance
appeals
ordered
footnotes
signs
read
follows
grand
rapids
public
schools
room
room
leased
grand
rapids
public
school
district
purpose
conducting
public
school
educational
programs
activity
room
controlled
solely
grand
rapids
public
school
district
app
expected
large
majority
students
attending
religious
schools
belong
denomination
controls
school
district
found
instance
approximately
students
catholic
schools
catholic
schools
roman
catholic
seven
christian
reformed
three
lutheran
one
seventh
day
adventist
one
baptist
petitioners
alleged
respondents
lacked
taxpayer
standing
flast
cohen
valley
forge
christian
college
americans
separation
church
state
district
appeals
rejected
standing
challenge
affirm
finding
relying
numerous
cases
adjudicated
establishment
clause
challenges
state
taxpayers
programs
aiding
nonpublic
schools
see
wolman
walter
roemer
maryland
public
works
board
meek
pittenger
sloan
lemon
committee
public
education
religious
liberty
nyquist
hunt
mcnair
levitt
committee
public
education
religious
liberty
lemon
kurtzman
everson
board
education
elementary
secondary
schools
case
differ
substantially
colleges
refused
characterize
pervasively
sectarian
roemer
maryland
public
works
board
see
also
hunt
mcnair
tilton
richardson
many
schools
case
include
prayer
attendance
religious
services
part
curriculum
run
churches
organizations
whose
members
must
subscribe
particular
religious
tenets
faculties
student
bodies
composed
largely
adherents
particular
denomination
give
preference
attendance
children
belonging
denomination
approximately
shared
time
instructors
previously
employed
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schools
many
reassigned
back
school
previously
taught
public
school
system
include
shared
time
teachers
ordinary
teacher
evaluation
program
subjects
evaluation
year
first
year
teaching
every
three
years
app
instance
held
prayers
conducted
commencement
legislative
session
violate
establishment
clause
part
long
historical
usage
lack
particular
sectarian
content
marsh
chambers
never
indulged
similar
assumption
respect
prayers
conducted
opening
schoolday
abington
school
district
schempp
engel
vitale
compare
meek
pittenger
invalidating
program
providing
remedial
services
religious
school
premises
wolman
walter
upholding
program
providing
similar
services
neutral
sites
premises
religious
school
see
supra
indirect
subsidy
effect
evokes
establishment
clause
concerns
public
funds
flow
institution
religion
pervasive
substantial
portion
functions
subsumed
religious
mission
hunt
mcnair
case
district
explicitly
found
participating
nonpublic
schools
pervasively
religious
sense
reason
inquiry
whether
aid
direct
substantial
necessary
petitioners
also
cite
mueller
allen
upheld
general
tax
deduction
available
parents
schoolchildren
school
expenses
including
tuition
religious
schools
mueller
however
quite
unlike
instant
case
unlike
mueller
aid
provided
unmediated
tax
code
numerous
private
choices
individual
parents
children
conclusion
need
determine
whether
aspects
challenged
programs
impermissibly
entangle
government
religious
matters
violation
third
prong
lemon
test
see
aguilar
felton
post
chief
justice
burger
concurring
judgment
part
dissenting
part
agree
decisions
lemon
kurtzman
earley
dicenso
decided
together
lemon
grand
rapids
community
education
program
violates
establishment
clause
shared
time
program
dissent
reasons
stated
dissenting
opinion
aguilar
felton
post
justice
concurring
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reasons
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aguilar
felton
post
dissent
holding
grand
rapids
shared
time
program
impermissibly
advances
religion
like
new
york
title
program
grand
rapids
shared
time
program
employs
public
school
teachers
offer
supplemental
instruction
parochial
school
children
premises
religious
schools
nothing
record
indicates
shared
time
instructors
attempted
proselytize
students
see
reason
public
school
teachers
grand
rapids
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counterparts
new
york
disobey
instructions
relies
district
finding
significant
portion
shared
time
instructors
previously
taught
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schools
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assigned
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school
previously
employed
americans
separation
church
state
school
dist
grand
rapids
supp
wd
see
ante
fact
shared
time
instructors
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employed
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school
fraction
work
parochial
school
previously
employed
app
experience
teachers
significantly
increase
risk
perceived
actual
effect
shared
time
program
inculcate
religion
public
expense
uphold
shared
time
program
agree
however
community
education
program
violates
establishment
clause
record
indicates
community
education
courses
parochial
schools
overwhelmingly
taught
instructors
current
employees
parochial
school
teachers
offer
secular
subjects
parochial
school
students
attend
regular
parochial
school
classes
addition
supervisors
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education
program
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schools
large
principals
schools
classes
offered
parochial
school
teachers
receive
public
funds
teach
secular
courses
parochial
school
students
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school
supervision
agree
program
perceived
actual
effect
advancing
religious
aims
schools
particularly
case
religion
pervades
curriculum
teachers
accustomed
bring
religion
play
everything
teach
concur
judgment
community
education
program
violates
establishment
clause
justice
white
dissenting
evidenced
dissenting
opinions
lemon
kurtzman
committee
public
education
religious
liberty
nyquist
long
disagreed
interpretation
application
establishment
clause
context
state
aid
private
schools
reasons
stated
dissents
firmly
belief
decisions
cases
like
decisions
lemon
nyquist
required
first
amendment
contrary
interests
country
reasons
satisfied
sought
cases
well
within
authority
forbidden
establishment
clause
hence
dissent
reverse
judgment
cases
opinion
applies
also
aguilar
et
al
felton
et
secretary
department
education
felton
et
chancellor
board
education
city
new
york
felton
et
post
justice
rehnquist
dissenting
dissent
reasons
stated
dissenting
opinion
wallace
jaffree
relies
heavily
principles
everson
board
education
mccollum
board
education
ante
declines
discuss
faulty
wall
premise
upon
cases
rest
blinds
first
years
history
establishment
clause
today
attempts
give
content
effects
prong
lemon
test
holding
symbolic
link
government
religion
creates
impermissible
effect
ante
one
wonders
teaching
math
topics
spanish
gymnastics
struck
today
creates
greater
symbolic
link
municipal
creche
upheld
lynch
donnelly
legislative
chaplain
upheld
marsh
chambers
unfortunate
result
case
support
holding
despite
disclaimers
impugns
integrity
public
school
teachers
contrary
law
teachers
promises
assumed
eager
inculcators
religious
dogma
see
ante
requiring
words
ongoing
inspection
aguilar
felton
post
see
ante
one
instance
attempted
religious
inculcation
exists
records
cases
decided
today
even
though
grand
rapids
new
york
programs
operation
number
years
reverse