volkswagen woodson argued october decided january action instituted oklahoma state respondents husband wife recover personal injuries sustained oklahoma accident involving automobile purchased new york new york residents driven oklahoma time accident defendants included automobile retailer wholesaler petitioners new york corporations business oklahoma petitioners entered special appearances claiming oklahoma exercise jurisdiction offend limitations state jurisdiction imposed due process clause fourteenth amendment trial rejected petitioners claims sought denied writ prohibition oklahoma restrain respondent trial judge exercising personam jurisdiction held consistently due process clause oklahoma trial may exercise personam jurisdiction petitioners pp state may exercise personal jurisdiction nonresident defendant long exist minimum contacts defendant forum state international shoe washington defendant contacts forum state must maintenance suit offend traditional notions fair play substantial justice relationship defendant forum must reasonable require corporation defend particular suit brought due process clause contemplate state may make binding judgment personam individual corporate defendant state contacts ties relations pp total absence record affiliating circumstances necessary predicate exercise jurisdiction petitioners carry activity whatsoever oklahoma close sales perform services avail none benefits oklahoma law solicit business either salespersons advertising reasonably calculated reach state record show regularly sell cars oklahoma residents indirectly others serve seek serve oklahoma market although foreseeable automobiles sold petitioners travel oklahoma automobile might cause injury oklahoma foreseeability alone sufficient benchmark personal jurisdiction due process clause foreseeability critical due process analysis mere likelihood product find way forum state rather defendant conduct connection forum reasonably anticipate haled jurisdiction supported theory petitioners earn substantial revenue goods used oklahoma pp white delivered opinion burger stewart powell rehnquist stevens joined brennan filed dissenting opinion post marshall filed dissenting opinion blackmun joined post blackmun filed dissenting opinion post herbert rubin argued cause petitioners briefs dan rogers bernard wald ian ceresney jefferson greer argued cause respondents brief charles whitebook justice white delivered opinion issue us whether consistently due process clause fourteenth amendment oklahoma may exercise personam jurisdiction nonresident automobile retailer wholesale distributor action defendants connection oklahoma fact automobile sold new york new york residents became involved accident oklahoma respondents harry kay robinson purchased new audi automobile petitioner seaway volkswagen seaway massena following year robinson family resided new york left state new home arizona passed state oklahoma another car struck audi rear causing fire severely burned kay robinson two children robinsons subsequently brought action district creek county claiming injuries resulted defective design placement audi gas tank fuel system joined defendants automobile manufacturer audi nsu auto union aktiengesellschaft audi importer volkswagen america volkswagen regional distributor petitioner volkswagen retail dealer petitioner seaway seaway entered special appearances claiming oklahoma exercise jurisdiction offend limitations state jurisdiction imposed due process clause fourteenth amendment facts presented district showed incorporated business office new york distributes vehicles parts accessories contract volkswagen retail dealers new york new jersey connecticut seaway one retail dealers incorporated place business new york insofar record reveals seaway fully independent corporations whose relations volkswagen audi contractual respondents adduced evidence either seaway business oklahoma ships sells products state agent receive process purchases advertisements media calculated reach oklahoma fact respondents counsel conceded oral argument tr oral arg showing automobile sold seaway ever entered oklahoma single exception vehicle involved present case despite apparent paucity contacts petitioners oklahoma district rejected constitutional claim reaffirmed ruling denying petitioners motion reconsideration petitioners sought writ prohibition oklahoma restrain district judge respondent charles woodson exercising personam jurisdiction renewed contention minimal contacts app state oklahoma actions district judge violation rights due process clause oklahoma denied writ holding personal jurisdiction petitioners authorized oklahoma statute okla tit although noted proper approach test jurisdiction statutory constitutional standards analysis distinguish questions probably interpreted conferring jurisdiction limits permitted constitution rationale contained following paragraph case us product sold distributed petitioners design purpose mobile petitioners foresee possible use oklahoma especially true distributor exclusive right distribute automobile new york new jersey connecticut evidence presented demonstrated goods sold distributed petitioners used state oklahoma facts believe reasonable infer given retail value automobile petitioners derive substantial income automobiles time time used state oklahoma case hold facts presented trial justified concluding petitioners derive substantial revenue goods used consumed state ii due process clause fourteenth amendment limits power state render valid personal judgment nonresident defendant kulko california superior judgment rendered violation due process void rendering state entitled full faith credit elsewhere pennoyer neff due process requires defendant given adequate notice suit mullane central hanover trust subject personal jurisdiction international shoe washington present case contended notice inadequate question whether particular petitioners subject jurisdiction oklahoma courts long settled reaffirm today state may exercise personal jurisdiction nonresident defendant long exist minimum contacts defendant forum state international shoe washington supra concept minimum contacts turn seen perform two related distinguishable functions protects defendant burdens litigating distant inconvenient forum acts ensure courts reach beyond limits imposed status coequal sovereigns federal system protection inconvenient litigation typically described terms reasonableness fairness said defendant contacts forum state must maintenance suit offend traditional notions fair play substantial justice international shoe washington supra quoting milliken meyer relationship defendant forum must reasonable require corporation defend particular suit brought implicit emphasis reasonableness understanding burden defendant always primary concern appropriate case considered light relevant factors including forum state interest adjudicating dispute see mcgee international life ins plaintiff interest obtaining convenient effective relief see kulko california superior supra least interest adequately protected plaintiff power choose forum cf shaffer heitner interstate judicial system interest obtaining efficient resolution controversies shared interest several furthering fundamental substantive social policies see kulko california superior supra limits imposed state jurisdiction due process clause role guarantor inconvenient litigation substantially relaxed years noted mcgee international life ins supra trend largely attributable fundamental transformation american economy today many commercial transactions touch two may involve parties separated full continent increasing nationalization commerce come great increase amount business conducted mail across state lines time modern transportation communication made much less burdensome party sued defend state engages economic activity nevertheless never accepted proposition state lines irrelevant jurisdictional purposes remain faithful principles interstate federalism embodied constitution economic interdependence foreseen desired framers commerce clause provided nation common market free trade unit debarred acting separable economic entities hood sons du mond framers also intended retain many essential attributes sovereignty including particular sovereign power try causes courts sovereignty state turn implied limitation sovereignty sister limitation express implicit original scheme constitution fourteenth amendment hence even abandoning shibboleth authority every tribunal necessarily restricted territorial limits state established pennoyer neff supra emphasized reasonableness asserting jurisdiction defendant must assessed context federal system government international shoe washington stressed due process clause ensures fairness also orderly administration laws noted hanson denckla technological progress increased flow commerce need jurisdiction nonresidents undergone similar increase time progress communications transportation made defense suit foreign tribunal less burdensome response changes requirements personal jurisdiction nonresidents evolved rigid rule pennoyer neff flexible standard international shoe washington mistake assume trend heralds eventual demise restrictions personal jurisdiction state courts citation omitted restrictions guarantee immunity inconvenient distant litigation consequence territorial limitations power respective iii applying principles case hand find record us total absence affiliating circumstances necessary predicate exercise jurisdiction petitioners carry activity whatsoever oklahoma close sales perform services avail none privileges benefits oklahoma law solicit business either salespersons advertising reasonably calculated reach state record show regularly sell cars wholesale retail oklahoma customers residents indirectly others serve seek serve oklahoma market short respondents seek base jurisdiction one isolated occurrence whatever inferences drawn therefrom fortuitous circumstance single audi automobile sold new york new york residents happened suffer accident passing oklahoma argued however automobile mobile design purpose foreseeable robinsons audi cause injury oklahoma yet foreseeability alone never sufficient benchmark personal jurisdiction due process clause hanson denckla supra doubt foreseeable settlor delaware trust subsequently move florida seek exercise power appointment yet held florida courts constitutionally exercise jurisdiction delaware trustee contacts forum state kulko california superior surely foreseeable divorced wife move california new york domicile marriage minor daughter live mother yet held california exercise jurisdiction action former husband remained new york foreseeability criterion local california tire retailer forced defend pennsylvania blowout occurs see erlanger mills cohoes fibre mills wisconsin seller defective automobile jack haled distant damage caused new jersey reilly phil tolkan pontiac supp nj florida concessionaire summoned alaska account injuries happening see uppgren executive aviation services supp every seller chattels effect appoint chattel agent service process amenability suit travel chattel recently abandoned outworn rule harris balk interest creditor debt extinguished otherwise affected state transitory jurisdiction debtor shaffer heitner interred mechanical rule creditor amenability quasi rem action travels debtor unwilling endorse analogous principle present case say course foreseeability wholly irrelevant foreseeability critical due process analysis mere likelihood product find way forum state rather defendant conduct connection forum state reasonably anticipate haled see kulko california superior supra shaffer heitner see stevens concurring judgment due process clause ensuring orderly administration laws international shoe washington gives degree predictability legal system allows potential defendants structure primary conduct minimum assurance conduct render liable suit corporation purposefully avails privilege conducting activities within forum state hanson denckla clear notice subject suit act alleviate risk burdensome litigation procuring insurance passing expected costs customers risks great severing connection state hence sale product manufacturer distributor audi volkswagen simply isolated occurrence arises efforts manufacturer distributor serve directly indirectly market product unreasonable subject suit one allegedly defective merchandise source injury owner others forum state exceed powers due process clause asserts personal jurisdiction corporation delivers products stream commerce expectation purchased consumers forum state cf gray american radiator standard sanitary similar basis oklahoma jurisdiction seaway case seaway sales made massena market although substantially larger limited dealers new york new jersey connecticut evidence record automobiles distributed sold retail customers outside tristate area foreseeable purchasers automobiles sold seaway may take oklahoma mere unilateral activity claim relationship nonresident defendant satisfy requirement contact forum state hanson denckla supra variant previous argument contended jurisdiction supported fact petitioners earn substantial revenue goods used oklahoma oklahoma found drawing inference one automobile sold petitioners used oklahoma others might used also inference seems less compelling facts instant case need question factual findings order reject reasoning argument seems make point purchase automobiles new york petitioners earn substantial revenue occur fact automobiles capable use distant like oklahoma respondents observe purpose automobile travel travel automobiles sold petitioners facilitated extensive chain volkswagen service centers throughout country including oklahoma however financial benefits accruing defendant collateral relation forum state support jurisdiction stem constitutionally cognizable contact state see kulko california superior view whatever marginal revenues petitioners may receive virtue fact products capable use oklahoma far attenuated contact justify state exercise personam jurisdiction find petitioners contacts ties relations state oklahoma international shoe washington supra judgment oklahoma reversed footnotes kay robinson sued behalf two children sued harry robinson father next friend volkswagen also entered special appearance district unlike seaway seek review oklahoma petitioner volkswagen audi remain defendants litigation pending district oklahoma papers filed petitioners also claimed district lacked venue subject matter app venue subject matter district rulings unreported appear app five judges joined opinion two concurred result without opinion one concurred part dissented part also without opinion subsection provides may exercise personal jurisdiction person acts directly agent cause action claim relief arising person causing tortious injury state act omission outside state regularly solicits business engages persistent course conduct derives substantial revenue goods used consumed services rendered state fields volkswagen america carmack chemical bank new york trust hines clendenning cf tilley keller truck implement granite volkswagen district pellegrini sachs sons utah oliver american motors respondents argue threshold matter petitioners waived objections personal jurisdiction joining special appearances challenge district jurisdiction see supra taking depositions merits case oklahoma trial however characterized appearances special oklahoma rather finding jurisdiction waived reached decided statutory constitutional questions cf kulko california superior respondents counsel oral argument see tr oral arg sought limit reach foreseeability standard suggesting something unique automobiles true automobiles uniquely mobile see tyson whitaker son mckusick play crucial role expansion personal jurisdiction fiction implied consent hess pawloski cases treated automobile dangerous instrumentality today regime international shoe see difference jurisdictional purposes automobile chattel dangerous instrumentality concept apparently never used support personal jurisdiction extent relevance today bears jurisdiction possible desirability imposing substantive principles tort law strict liability noted petitioners earn direct revenues service centers see supra justice brennan dissenting holds due process clause fourteenth amendment bars asserting jurisdiction defendants two cases case decides fails find minimum contacts required since international shoe washington believe reads international shoe progeny narrowly believe standards enunciated cases may already obsolete constitutional boundaries dissent opinions focus tightly existence contacts forum defendant accord little weight strength forum state interest case fail explore whether actual inconvenience defendant essential inquiry locating constitutional limits jurisdiction absent defendants whether particular exercise jurisdiction offends traditional notions fair play substantial justice international shoe supra quoting milliken meyer clear focus international shoe fairness reasonableness kulko california superior specifically declined establish mechanical test based quantum contacts state defendant whether due process satisfied must depend rather upon quality nature activity relation fair orderly administration laws purpose due process clause insure clause contemplate state may make binding judgment personam individual corporate defendant state contacts ties relations emphasis added surely international shoe contemplated significance contacts necessary support jurisdiction diminish consideration helped establish jurisdiction fair reasonable interests state parties proceeding case particular forum considerations mcgee international life ins instance accorded great importance state manifest interest providing effective means redress citizens see also kulko california superior supra shaffer heitner mullane central hanover trust another consideration actual burden defendant must bear defending suit forum mcgee supra lesser burdens reduce unfairness defendant jurisdiction may justified despite less significant contacts burden course must constitutional dimension due process limits jurisdiction protect defendant inconvenience travel mcgee supra sensible make constitutional rule turn solely number miles defendant must travel courtroom instead constitutionally significant burden analyzed relates mobility defendant defense instance travel foreign forum hamper defense witnesses evidence defendant immobile disproportionately large number witnesses amount evidence transported defendant expense away home duration trial work special hardship defendant constitution require special consideration defendant interests considerations contacts forum defendant relevant necessarily means constitution require trial held state best contacts defendant see shaffer heitner supra brennan dissenting defendant constitutional entitlement best forum matter particular forum even restrictive view international shoe several jurisdiction particular cause action need determine whether forum cases satisfy constitutional minimum ii cases find forum state interest permitting litigation go forward litigation connected forum defendant linked forum burden defending unreasonable accordingly hold neither unfair unreasonable require defendants defend forum state number considerations suggest minnesota interested convenient forum action filed bona fide resident forum consequently minnesota interests similar even lesser interests california mcgee supra providing forum residents regulating activities insurance companies business state post moreover minnesota attempted assert particularized interest trying cases courts enacting special jurisdictional statute kulko supra mcgee supra mcgee resident forced travel distant state prosecute action someone injured lack funds entirely unable bring cause action plaintiff residence state makes state one convenient fora personal injury case others usually defendant home state state accident occurred addition burden defendant slight judge friendly recognized shaffer emphasizes importance identifying real impact lawsuit paving upholding constitutionality jurisdiction similar case new york law shaffer real impact defendant insurer concededly amenable suit forum state defendant carefully protected financial liability action limits prayer damages insurance policy liability limit insurer handle case defendant defendant nominal party need active case cooperation clause policy requires ease airline transportation need lose significantly time case home consequently suit went forward minnesota defendant bear almost burden expense beyond face suit home state real impact named defendant direct action insurer constitutionally permissible watson employers liability assurance minichiello rosenberg distinction formal analytica prerequisite post making insured named party surely mere addition appellant name complaint suffice create due process violation finally even relevant inquiry whether sufficient contacts forum named defendant find contacts exist insurer presence minnesota advantage defendant may well consideration selecting policy insurer offices many makes easier insured make claims conduct business may become necessary traveling simply true state farm decision business minnesota completely adventitious far rush concerned post buying state farm policy defendant availed benefits might derive insurance agent minnesota among things facilitate suit appellant minnesota resident seems unreasonable read constitution permitting one take advantage nationwide insurance network burdened sum hold appellant deprived due process required submit trial minnesota first minnesota sufficient interest connection litigation real nominal defendants second burden nominal defendant sufficiently slight interest forum state connection litigation strong automobile accident underlying litigation occurred oklahoma plaintiffs hospitalized oklahoma brought suit essential witnesses evidence oklahoma see shaffer heitner state legitimate interest enforcing laws designed keep highway system safe trial proceed least efficiently oklahoma anywhere else petitioners unconnected forum although sell automobiles within limited sales territories sold automobile fact driven oklahoma involved accident may true suggests sincerely intended limit commercial impact limited territory intended accept benefits protection laws within territory obviously unrealistic hopes treated automatic constitutional shield automobile simply stationary item one designed used one place automobile intended moved around someone business selling large numbers automobiles hardly plead ignorance mobility pretend automobiles stay put sold merely dealer automobiles foresees move ante dealer actually intends purchasers use automobiles travel distant dealer directly business sale automobile purposefully inject vehicle stream interstate commerce travel distant see kulko hanson denckla case similar ohio wyandotte chemicals indicated course denying leave file case corporations direct contact ohio constitutionally brought trial ohio dumped pollutants streams outside ohio limits ultimately action water reached lake erie affected ohio corporate acts consequences occurred ohio stream commerce natural force stream water equally predictable cars petitioners released reach distant accepts state may exercise jurisdiction distributor serves state indirectly deliver ing products stream commerce expectation purchased consumers forum state ante difficult see constitution distinguish case involving goods reach distant state chain distribution case involving goods reach state consumer using dealer knew customer took case seller purposefully injects goods stream commerce goods predictably used forum state furthermore automobile seller derives substantial benefits large part value automobiles extensive nationwide network highways significant portions network constructed maintained individual including oklahoma highway programs contribute direct important way value petitioners businesses additionally network related dealerships service departments operates throughout country protection laws various including oklahoma enhances value petitioners businesses facilitating customers traveling thus errs conclusion ante emphasis added petitioners contacts ties relations oklahoma obviously contacts given oklahoma connection litigation contacts sufficiently significant make fair reasonable petitioners submit oklahoma jurisdiction iii may affirmance judgments cases approach outer limits international shoe jurisdictional principle principle almost exclusive focus rights defendants may outdated justice marshall wrote shaffer heitner raditional notions fair play substantial justice readily offended perpetuation ancient forms longer justified adoption new procedures international shoe inherited defendant focus pennoyer neff represented last major step taken long process liberalizing doctrine personal jurisdiction though flexible approach represented major advance structure society changed many significant ways since international shoe decided justice black writing mcgee international life ins recognized trend clearly discernible toward expanding permissible scope state jurisdiction foreign corporations nonresidents explained trend follows part attributable fundamental transformation national economy years today many commercial transactions touch two may involve parties separated full continent increasing nationalization commerce come great increase amount business conducted mail across state lines time modern transportation communication made much less burdensome party sued defend state engages economic activity answering question whether fair reasonable allow particular forum hold trial binding particular defendant interests forum state parties loom large today world surely entitled much weight interests defendant orderly administration laws provides firm basis according protection interests plaintiffs well defendants certainly see defendant right due process violated defendant suffers inconvenience see ante conclusion draw constitutional concepts fairness longer require extreme concern defendants necessary rather wrote dissent shaffer heitner supra emphasis added minimum contacts must exist among parties contested transaction forum state contacts two determinate hen suitor seeks lodge suit state substantial interest seeing law applied transaction question wisely act minimize conflicts confusion uncertainty adopting liberal view jurisdiction unless considerations fairness efficiency strongly point opposite direction justice black dissenting hanson denckla expressed similar concerns suggesting state jurisdiction case growing transaction significantly related state unless litigation impose heavy disproportionate burden nonresident defendant offend referred traditional notions fair play substantial justice assuming state gives nonresident defendant adequate notice opportunity defend think due process clause offended merely defendant board plane get site trial opinion suggests defendant subject state jurisdiction contacts state reasonably anticipate haled ante nothing unreasonable unfair however recognizing commercial reality given tremendous mobility goods people inability businessmen control goods taken customers retailers think defendant complete control geographical stretch amenability suit jurisdiction longer premised notion nonresident defendants somehow impliedly consented suit people understand held responsible consequences actions society actions consequences affecting many action fact causes injury another state actor prepared answer unless defending state unfair reason state boundary must crossed effect allowing defendants assert sovereign rights home expressed fear otherwise limits personal jurisdiction disappear argument premise wrong abolish limits jurisdiction strip state boundaries significance see hanson supra black dissenting still require plaintiff demonstrate sufficient contacts among parties forum litigation make forum reasonable state hold trial also however strip defendant unjustified veto power certain appropriate fora power defendant justifiably enjoyed long ago communication travel long distances slow unpredictable notions state sovereignty impractical exaggerated repeat today world plaintiff show chosen forum state sufficient interest litigation sufficient contacts defendant defendant show real injury constitutionally protected interest see paving constitutional excuse appear plaintiffs cases brought suit forum significant contacts significant contacts litigation convinced defendants suffer heavy disproportionate burden defending suits accordingly hold constitution shield defendants appearing defending plaintiffs chosen fora opinion applies also rush et al savchuk post fact courtroom across state line defendant may often far convenient defendant courtroom distant corner state course remain free choose whether extend jurisdiction embrace defendants constitution permit exercise jurisdiction plaintiff asserted jurisdiction pursuant stat subd allows garnishment insurer obligation defend indemnify insured see post accompanying text minnesota interpreted statute allowing suit insurance policy liability limit held statute embodies rule seider roth say considerations relevant far cry saying substituted contacts defendant cause action post forum interest litigation independent point inquiry even traditional readings international shoe progeny shift focus away relationship among defendant forum litigation post emphasis added instead shift within accepted relationship connections defendant forum forum litigation every international shoe inquiry defendant necessarily outside forum state thus inevitable either defendant plaintiff inconvenienced problem existing time pennoyer neff resident plaintiff obtain binding judgment unsuspecting distant defendant virtually disappeared age instant communication virtually instant travel true insurance contract subject litigation post one undisputed clauses insurance policy insurer defend action pay damages assessed policy limit purpose contract relieve insured defend state statute suit absent insurance contract thus real sense insurance contract source suit see shaffer heitner defendant real party subject actual liability significant noneconomic consequences suggested note post substantial connection forum state might well constitutionally required basis fact state inferred petitioners derived substantial revenue goods used oklahoma inference without support certainly use goods accepted relevant contact plaintiff need exact count number petitioners cars used oklahoma moreover imposing liability case undermine certainty destroy automobile dealer ability business according jurisdiction expand liability except marginal case plaintiff afford bring action except plaintiff state addition petitioners represented insurance companies purchase insurance protect stand trial lose case costs insurance doubt passed customers one might argue predictable pollutants reach ohio one petitioners cars reach oklahoma analysis however excludes jurisdiction contiguous state pennsylvania surely distant oklahoma example understand constitutional distinction selling item new jersey selling item new york expecting used new jersey manufacturer case cited gray american radiator standard sanitary control goods reach petitioners case statistics help illustrate amazing expansion mobility since international shoe number revenue flown domestic international flights increased nearly three orders magnitude million billion department commerce historical statistics pt department commerce statistical abstract automobile including passenger cars buses trucks driven increased relatively modest period growing billion billion historical statistics supra statistical abstract supra recognized cases interests justice turn focus jurisdictional inquiry away contracts defendant forum state instance indicated requirement contacts may greatly relaxed indeed personal contacts required plaintiff suing nonresident defendant enforce judgment procured another state shaffer heitner nn cases inquiry resemble inquiry commonly undertaken determining state law apply fair apply state law nonresident defendant clearly relevant determining whether fair subject defendant jurisdiction state shaffer heitner supra brennan dissenting hanson denckla black dissenting see infra standard need uncertain test answers written black white greys dominant even among shades innumerable estin estin kulko california superior strong emphasis state interest nothing new permitting forum exercise jurisdiction nonresident claimants trust largely basis forum interest closing trust stated interest state providing means close trusts exist grace laws administered supervision courts insistent rooted custom establish beyond doubt right courts determine interests claimants resident nonresident provided procedure accords full opportunity appear heard mullane central hanover trust suggests critical foreseeability rather likelihood product go forum state reasoning begs question defendant know actions subject jurisdiction another state declared law jurisdiction one consideration might create unfairness choice forum also imposed defendant unfavorable substantive law defendant justly assumed apply see supra instance plaintiff bona fide resident minnesota suit filed defendant subject financial liability might well reach different result might reach different result accident occurred oklahoma frequently course defendant able influence choice forum traditional doctrines venue forum non conveniens permitting transfer litigation shaffer heitner brennan dissenting justice marshall justice blackmun joins dissenting years standard measure constitutionally permissible reach jurisdiction well established ue process requires order subject defendant judgment personam present within territory forum certain minimum contacts maintenance suit offend traditional notions fair play substantial justice international shoe washington quoting milliken meyer difficult case reasonable minds may differ whether respondents alleged sufficient relationship among defendant forum litigation shaffer heitner satisfy requirements international shoe concerned however majority reached result taking unnecessarily narrow view petitioners conduct majority asserts respondents seek base jurisdiction one isolated occurrence whatever inferences drawn therefrom fortuitous circumstance single audi automobile sold new york new york residents happened suffer accident passing oklahoma ante case readily agree minimum contacts necessary sustain jurisdiction present basis assertion jurisdiction happenstance individual petitioners control made unilateral decision take chattel distant state rather jurisdiction premised deliberate purposeful actions defendants choosing become part nationwide indeed global network marketing servicing automobiles petitioners sellers product whose utility derives mobility unique importance automobile today society discussed justice blackmun dissenting opinion post needs elaboration petitioners know customers buy cars make short trips also travel long distances fact nationwide service network affiliated designed facilitate encourage travel seaway unlikely sell many cars authorized service available massena moreover local dealers normally derive substantial portion revenues service operations thereby obtain economic benefit opportunity service cars sold apparent petitioners attempted minimize chance activities effects contrary chosen business way increases chance economic advantage sure petitioners know advance particular automobile driven oklahoma must anticipated however substantial portion cars sold travel new york seaway local dealer second populous state one seven regional audi distributors entire country see brief respondents scarcely surprised learn car sold driven oklahoma interstate heavily traveled transcontinental highway case distributor particular probability cars sells driven every one contiguous must amount virtual certainty knowledge alert reasonable businessman likelihood defect product might manifest forum state unpredictable aberrant unilateral action single buyer normal course operation vehicles intended purpose misleading majority characterize argument favor jurisdiction one foreseeability alone ante economic entities petitioners reach new york knowingly causing effects receiving economic advantage ability cause effects activities dealers distributors receive revenue making direct sales oklahoma intentionally became part interstate economic network included dealerships oklahoma pecuniary gain light purposeful conduct believe said petitioners reason expect haled oklahoma shaffer heitner supra see ante kulko california superior majority apparently acknowledges product purchased forum state consumer state may assert jurisdiction everyone chain distribution see ante agree agree jurisdiction necessarily lacking product enters state channels distribution course intended use consumer recognized role played automobile expansion notions personal jurisdiction see shaffer heitner supra hess pawloski unlike chattels may find way far purchased owner takes intended use automobile precisely means traveling one place another case highly artificial restrict concept stream commerce chain distribution manufacturer ultimate consumer sympathize majority concern persons able structure conduct subject suit distant forums may always possible activities nature may foreclose option conducting way avoid subjecting oneself jurisdiction multiple forums means say sellers automobiles subject suit everywhere distributor automobiles multistate market local automobile dealer makes part nationwide network dealerships fairly expect cars sell may cause injury distant may called defend resulting lawsuit light quality nature petitioners activity majority reliance kulko california superior supra misplaced kulko involved assertion jurisdiction nonresident individual connection action modify child custody rights support obligations contact forum state gave minor child permission live mother holding exercise jurisdiction violated due process clause emphasized cause action well defendant actions relation forum state arose defendant commercial transactions interstate commerce rather personal domestic relations emphasis supplied contrasting kulko actions insurance company mcgee international life ins undertaken commercial benefit manifestly quality nature commercial activity different purposes international shoe test actions defendant obtains economic advantage commercial activity likely cause effects larger sphere actor derives economic benefit activity makes fair require answer conduct effects felt profits may used pay costs suit knowing activity likely effects defendant readily insure costs effects thereby sparing much inconvenience defending distant forum course constitution forbids exercise jurisdiction defendant judicially cognizable contacts forum majority acknowledges contacts present jurisdictional inquiry requires balancing various interests policies see ante rush savchuk post believe contacts found considering interests policies stake requiring petitioners defend action oklahoma beyond bounds constitution accordingly dissent similarly believe hanson denckla influenced fact trust administration traditionally considered peculiarly local activity justice blackmun dissenting confess somewhat puzzled plaintiffs litigation insistent regional distributor retail dealer petitioners handled audi automobile involved litigation named defendants appear manufacturer importer whose subjectability oklahoma jurisdiction challenged may course ultimately amount contest insurance companies begun easily brought termination made much observation pursue critical factor disposition litigation nature instrumentality consideration said nation wheels concerned automobile peripatetic character one need examine national network interstate highways make appearance one observe variety license plates present highways metropolitan area realize automobile likely wander far place licensure place distribution retail sale miles per gallon highway well city mileage per thankful familiar allegations manufacturers advertisements today expect new automobile remain vicinity retail sale like electric car driven proverbial little old lady blink reality automobile intended distance well transportation within limited area therefore seems unreasonable certainly unconstitutional beyond reach principles laid international shoe washington progeny uphold oklahoma jurisdiction new york distributor new york dealer accident happened oklahoma see nothing unfair manufacturer importer business providing vehicles spread highways several much anticipate time distribution time retail sale audi oklahoma moreover assessing minimum contacts foreseeable use another state seems little different foreseeable resale another state yet declares distinction determinate ante justice brennan points dissent ante automobile dealer derives substantial benefits true regional distributor oklahoma best provide safe roads police investigate accidents regulates driving within state provides aid victim thereby hoped lessens damages accident reports prepared made available contributes enhances business engaged professionally distribution sale automobiles also may benefit defendants lawsuits state asserts jurisdiction position need take beyond automobile professional business way distributing retailing automobiles cases concerning instrumentalities dealt arise contexts affirm judgment oklahoma reverses judgment parsing every variant myriad motor vehicle fact situations present justify jurisdiction others depend contact sees fit perceive individual case