vernonia
school
dist
acton
argued
march
decided
june
motivated
discovery
athletes
leaders
student
drug
culture
concern
drug
use
increases
risk
injury
petitioner
school
district
district
adopted
student
athlete
drug
policy
policy
authorizes
random
urinalysis
drug
testing
students
participate
athletics
programs
respondent
acton
denied
participation
school
football
program
parents
also
respondents
refused
consent
testing
filed
suit
seeking
declaratory
injunctive
relief
grounds
policy
violated
fourth
fourteenth
amendments
oregon
constitution
district
denied
claims
appeals
reversed
holding
policy
violated
federal
state
constitutions
held
policy
constitutional
fourth
fourteenth
amendments
pp
collection
testing
urine
constitutes
search
fourth
amendment
skinner
railway
labor
executives
clear
practice
either
approving
disapproving
type
search
issue
time
constitutional
provision
enacted
reasonableness
search
judged
balancing
intrusion
individual
fourth
amendment
interests
promotion
legitimate
governmental
interests
pp
first
factor
considered
determining
reasonableness
nature
privacy
interest
search
intrudes
subjects
policy
children
committed
temporary
custody
state
schoolmaster
page
ii
capacity
state
may
exercise
degree
supervision
control
greater
exercise
free
adults
requirements
public
school
children
submit
physical
examinations
vaccinated
indicate
lesser
privacy
expectation
regard
medical
examinations
procedures
general
population
student
athletes
even
less
legitimate
privacy
expectation
element
communal
undress
inherent
athletic
participation
athletes
subject
preseason
physical
exams
rules
regulating
conduct
pp
privacy
interests
compromised
process
obtaining
urine
samples
policy
negligible
since
conditions
collection
nearly
identical
typically
encountered
public
restrooms
addition
tests
look
standard
drugs
medical
conditions
results
released
limited
group
pp
nature
immediacy
governmental
concern
issue
efficacy
means
meeting
also
favor
finding
reasonableness
importance
deterring
drug
use
nation
schoolchildren
doubted
moreover
policy
directed
narrowly
drug
use
athletes
risk
physical
harm
user
players
high
district
conclusion
district
concerns
immediate
clearly
erroneous
drug
problem
largely
caused
athletes
particular
danger
athletes
effectively
addressed
ensuring
athletes
use
drugs
fourth
amendment
require
least
intrusive
search
conducted
respondents
argument
drug
testing
based
suspicion
drug
use
true
fatal
alternative
entails
substantial
difficulties
pp
scalia
delivered
opinion
rehnquist
kennedy
thomas
ginsburg
breyer
joined
ginsburg
filed
concurring
opinion
filed
dissenting
opinion
stevens
souter
joined
vernonia
school
dist
acton
justice
scalia
delivered
opinion
student
athlete
drug
policy
adopted
school
district
town
vernonia
oregon
authorizes
random
urinalysis
drug
testing
students
participate
district
school
athletics
programs
granted
certiorari
decide
whether
violates
fourth
fourteenth
amendments
constitution
petitioner
vernonia
school
district
district
operates
one
high
school
three
grade
schools
logging
community
vernonia
oregon
elsewhere
america
school
sports
play
prominent
role
town
life
student
athletes
admired
schools
community
drugs
major
problem
vernonia
schools
however
teachers
administrators
observed
sharp
increase
drug
use
students
began
speak
attraction
drug
culture
boast
nothing
school
along
drugs
came
disciplinary
problems
number
disciplinary
referrals
vernonia
vernonia
school
dist
acton
schools
rose
twice
number
reported
early
several
students
suspended
students
became
increasingly
rude
class
outbursts
profane
language
became
common
student
athletes
included
among
drug
users
district
found
athletes
leaders
drug
culture
supp
caused
district
administrators
particular
concern
since
drug
use
increases
risk
injury
expert
testimony
trial
confirmed
deleterious
effects
drugs
motivation
memory
judgment
reaction
coordination
performance
high
school
football
wrestling
coach
witnessed
severe
sternum
injury
suffered
wrestler
various
omissions
safety
procedures
misexecutions
football
players
attributable
belief
effects
drug
use
initially
district
responded
drug
problem
offering
special
classes
speakers
presentations
designed
deter
drug
use
even
brought
specially
trained
dog
detect
drugs
drug
problem
persisted
according
district
administration
wits
end
large
segment
student
body
particularly
involved
interscholastic
athletics
state
rebellion
disciplinary
problems
reached
epidemic
proportions
coincidence
almost
increase
classroom
disruptions
disciplinary
reports
along
staff
direct
observations
students
using
drugs
glamorizing
drug
alcohol
use
led
administration
inescapable
conclusion
rebellion
fueled
alcohol
drug
abuse
well
student
misperceptions
drug
culture
ibid
vernonia
school
dist
acton
policy
applies
students
participating
interscholastic
athletics
students
wishing
play
sports
must
sign
form
consenting
testing
must
obtain
written
consent
parents
athletes
tested
beginning
season
sport
addition
week
season
names
athletes
placed
pool
student
supervision
two
adults
blindly
draws
names
athletes
random
testing
selected
notified
tested
day
possible
student
tested
completes
specimen
control
form
bears
assigned
number
prescription
medications
student
taking
must
identified
providing
copy
prescription
doctor
authorization
student
enters
empty
locker
room
accompanied
adult
monitor
sex
boy
selected
produces
sample
urinal
remaining
fully
clothed
back
monitor
stands
approximately
feet
behind
student
monitors
may
though
always
watch
student
produces
sample
listen
normal
sounds
urination
girls
produce
samples
enclosed
bathroom
stall
heard
observed
sample
produced
given
monitor
checks
temperature
tampering
transfers
vial
vernonia
school
dist
acton
samples
sent
independent
laboratory
routinely
tests
amphetamines
cocaine
marijuana
drugs
lsd
may
screened
request
district
identity
particular
student
determine
drugs
tested
laboratory
procedures
accurate
district
follows
strict
procedures
regarding
chain
custody
access
test
results
laboratory
know
identity
students
whose
samples
tests
authorized
mail
written
test
reports
superintendent
provide
test
results
district
personnel
telephone
requesting
official
recites
code
confirming
authority
superintendent
principals
athletic
directors
access
test
results
results
kept
one
year
sample
tests
positive
second
test
administered
soon
possible
confirm
result
second
test
negative
action
taken
second
test
positive
athlete
parents
notified
school
principal
convenes
meeting
student
parents
student
given
option
participating
six
weeks
assistance
program
includes
weekly
urinalysis
suffering
suspension
athletics
remainder
current
season
next
athletic
season
student
retested
prior
start
next
athletic
season
eligible
policy
second
offense
results
automatic
imposition
option
third
offense
suspension
remainder
current
season
next
two
athletic
seasons
fall
respondent
james
acton
signed
play
football
one
district
grade
schools
denied
participation
vernonia
school
dist
acton
however
parents
refused
sign
testing
consent
forms
actons
filed
suit
seeking
declaratory
injunctive
relief
enforcement
policy
grounds
violated
fourth
fourteenth
amendments
constitution
article
oregon
constitution
bench
trial
district
entered
order
denying
claims
merits
dismissing
action
appeals
ninth
circuit
reversed
holding
policy
violated
fourth
fourteenth
amendments
article
oregon
constitution
granted
certiorari
ii
fourth
amendment
constitution
provides
federal
government
shall
violate
right
people
secure
persons
houses
papers
effects
unreasonable
searches
seizures
held
fourteenth
amendment
extends
constitutional
guarantee
searches
seizures
state
officers
elkins
including
public
school
officials
new
jersey
skinner
railway
labor
executives
held
collection
testing
urine
required
student
athlete
drug
policy
constitutes
search
subject
demands
fourth
amendment
see
also
treasury
employees
von
raab
text
fourth
amendment
indicates
ultimate
measure
constitutionality
governmental
search
reasonableness
least
case
clear
practice
either
approving
disapproving
type
search
issue
vernonia
school
dist
acton
time
constitutional
provision
enacted
whether
particular
search
meets
reasonableness
standard
judged
balancing
intrusion
individual
fourth
amendment
interests
promotion
legitimate
governmental
interests
skinner
supra
quoting
delaware
prouse
search
undertaken
law
enforcement
officials
discover
evidence
criminal
wrongdoing
said
reasonableness
generally
requires
obtaining
judicial
warrant
skinner
supra
warrants
issued
course
without
showing
probable
cause
required
warrant
clause
warrant
required
establish
reasonableness
government
searches
warrant
required
warrant
clause
therefore
applicable
probable
cause
invariably
required
either
search
unsupported
probable
cause
constitutional
said
special
needs
beyond
normal
need
law
enforcement
make
warrant
requirement
impracticable
griffin
wisconsin
internal
quotation
marks
omitted
found
special
needs
exist
context
warrant
requirement
unduly
interfere
maintenance
swift
informal
disciplinary
procedures
needed
strict
adherence
requirement
vernonia
school
dist
acton
searches
based
upon
probable
cause
undercut
substantial
need
teachers
administrators
freedom
maintain
order
schools
supra
school
search
approved
based
probable
cause
based
individualized
suspicion
wrongdoing
explicitly
acknowledged
however
fourth
amendment
imposes
irreducible
requirement
suspicion
quoting
upheld
suspicionless
searches
seizures
conduct
drug
testing
railroad
personnel
involved
train
accidents
see
skinner
supra
conduct
random
drug
testing
federal
customs
officers
carry
arms
involved
drug
interdiction
see
von
raab
supra
maintain
automobile
checkpoints
looking
illegal
immigrants
contraband
supra
drunk
drivers
michigan
dept
state
police
sitz
iii
vernonia
school
dist
acton
traditionally
common
law
still
today
unemancipated
minors
lack
fundamental
rights
including
even
right
liberty
narrow
sense
right
come
go
subject
even
physical
freedom
control
parents
guardians
see
jur
parents
place
minor
children
private
schools
education
teachers
administrators
schools
stand
loco
parentis
children
entrusted
fact
tutor
schoolmaster
prototype
status
blackstone
describes
parent
may
delegate
part
parental
authority
life
tutor
schoolmaster
child
loco
parentis
portion
power
parent
committed
charge
viz
restraint
correction
may
necessary
answer
purposes
employed
blackstone
commentaries
laws
england
rejected
notion
public
schools
like
private
schools
exercise
parental
power
students
course
subject
constitutional
constraints
view
things
said
entirely
consonant
compulsory
education
laws
ibid
quoting
ingraham
wright
inconsistent
prior
decisions
treating
school
officials
state
actors
purposes
due
process
free
speech
clauses
supra
denying
state
power
schoolchildren
formally
vernonia
school
dist
acton
delegated
power
parents
deny
indeed
emphasized
nature
power
custodial
tutelary
permitting
degree
supervision
control
exercised
free
adults
proper
educational
environment
requires
close
supervision
schoolchildren
well
enforcement
rules
conduct
perfectly
permissible
undertaken
adult
course
suggest
public
schools
general
matter
degree
control
children
give
rise
constitutional
duty
protect
see
deshaney
winnebago
county
dept
social
acknowledged
many
purposes
school
authorities
ac
loco
parentis
bethel
school
dist
fraser
power
indeed
duty
inculcate
habits
manners
civility
internal
quotation
marks
omitted
thus
children
assuredly
shed
constitutional
rights
schoolhouse
gate
tinker
des
moines
independent
community
school
nature
rights
appropriate
children
school
see
goss
lopez
due
process
student
challenging
disciplinary
suspension
requires
teacher
informally
discuss
alleged
misconduct
student
minutes
occurred
fraser
supra
highly
appropriate
function
public
school
education
prohibit
use
vulgar
offensive
terms
public
discourse
hazlewood
school
dist
kuhlmeier
public
school
authorities
may
censor
publications
long
censorship
reasonably
related
legitimate
pedagogical
concerns
ingraham
supra
mposing
additional
administrative
safeguards
upon
corporal
punishment
entail
significant
intrusion
vernonia
school
dist
acton
area
primary
educational
responsibility
fourth
amendment
rights
less
first
fourteenth
amendment
rights
different
public
schools
elsewhere
reasonableness
inquiry
disregard
schools
custodial
tutelary
responsibility
children
good
classmates
public
school
children
routinely
required
submit
various
physical
examinations
vaccinated
various
diseases
according
american
academy
pediatrics
public
schools
provide
vision
hearing
screening
dental
dermatological
checks
others
also
mandate
scoliosis
screening
appropriate
grade
levels
committee
school
health
american
academy
pediatrics
school
health
guide
health
professionals
school
year
required
students
vaccinated
diphtheria
measles
rubella
polio
dept
health
human
services
public
health
service
centers
disease
control
state
immunization
requirements
particularly
regard
medical
examinations
procedures
therefore
students
within
school
environment
lesser
expectation
privacy
members
population
generally
powell
concurring
legitimate
privacy
expectations
even
less
regard
student
athletes
school
sports
bashful
require
suiting
practice
event
showering
changing
afterwards
public
school
locker
rooms
usual
sites
activities
notable
privacy
afford
locker
rooms
vernonia
typical
individual
dressing
rooms
provided
shower
heads
lined
along
wall
unseparated
sort
partition
curtain
even
toilet
stalls
doors
appeals
seventh
circuit
noted
element
communal
undress
vernonia
school
dist
acton
inherent
athletic
participation
schaill
kross
tippecanoe
county
school
additional
respect
school
athletes
reduced
expectation
privacy
choosing
go
team
voluntarily
subject
degree
regulation
even
higher
imposed
students
generally
vernonia
public
schools
must
submit
preseason
physical
exam
james
testified
included
giving
urine
sample
app
must
acquire
adequate
insurance
coverage
sign
insurance
waiver
maintain
minimum
grade
point
average
comply
rules
conduct
dress
training
hours
related
matters
may
established
sport
head
coach
athletic
director
principal
approval
record
exh
somewhat
like
adults
choose
participate
closely
regulated
industry
students
voluntarily
participate
school
athletics
reason
expect
intrusions
upon
normal
rights
privileges
including
privacy
see
skinner
biswell
iv
considered
scope
legitimate
expectation
privacy
issue
turn
next
character
intrusion
complained
recognized
skinner
collecting
samples
urinalysis
intrudes
upon
excretory
function
traditionally
shielded
great
privacy
skinner
noted
however
degree
intrusion
depends
upon
manner
production
urine
sample
monitored
ibid
district
policy
male
students
produce
samples
urinal
along
wall
remain
fully
clothed
observed
behind
female
students
produce
samples
vernonia
school
dist
acton
enclosed
stall
female
monitor
standing
outside
listening
sounds
tampering
conditions
nearly
identical
typically
encountered
public
restrooms
men
women
especially
school
children
use
daily
conditions
privacy
interests
compromised
process
obtaining
urine
sample
view
negligible
aspect
urinalysis
course
information
discloses
concerning
state
subject
body
materials
ingested
regard
significant
tests
issue
look
drugs
whether
student
example
epileptic
pregnant
diabetic
see
skinner
supra
moreover
drugs
samples
screened
standard
vary
according
identity
student
finally
results
tests
disclosed
limited
class
school
personnel
need
know
turned
law
enforcement
authorities
used
internal
disciplinary
function
see
also
vernonia
school
dist
acton
respondents
argue
however
district
policy
fact
intrusive
suggests
requires
students
avoid
sanctions
falsely
positive
test
identify
advance
prescription
medications
taking
agree
raises
cause
concern
von
raab
flagged
one
salutary
features
customs
service
program
fact
employees
required
disclose
medical
information
unless
tested
positive
even
information
supplied
licensed
physician
rather
government
employer
see
von
raab
hand
never
indicated
requiring
advance
disclosure
medications
per
se
unreasonable
indeed
skinner
held
significant
invasion
privacy
skinner
argued
skinner
disclosure
went
medical
personnel
taking
sample
government
personnel
analyzing
see
see
railroad
personnel
responsible
forwarding
sample
presumably
accompanying
information
government
testing
lab
disclosure
teachers
coaches
persons
personally
know
student
greater
invasion
privacy
assuming
sake
argument
propositions
true
believe
establish
difference
respondents
entitled
rely
general
authorization
form
respondents
refused
sign
refusal
basis
james
exclusion
sports
program
said
relevant
part
authorize
vernonia
school
district
conduct
test
urine
specimen
provide
test
drugs
alcohol
use
also
authorize
vernonia
school
dist
acton
release
information
concerning
results
test
vernonia
school
district
parents
guardians
student
app
practice
district
seems
school
official
take
medication
information
student
time
test
see
app
practice
set
forth
required
policy
says
simply
student
athletes
taking
prescription
medication
must
provide
verification
either
copy
prescription
doctor
authorization
prior
tested
app
may
well
james
selected
random
testing
time
taking
medication
school
district
permitted
provide
requested
information
confidential
manner
example
sealed
envelope
delivered
testing
lab
nothing
policy
contradicts
respondents
choose
effect
challenge
policy
face
assume
worst
accordingly
reach
conclusion
skinner
invasion
privacy
significant
finally
turn
consider
nature
immediacy
governmental
concern
issue
efficacy
means
meeting
skinner
von
raab
characterized
government
interest
motivating
search
compelling
skinner
supra
interest
preventing
railway
accidents
von
raab
supra
interest
insuring
fitness
customs
officials
interdict
drugs
handle
firearms
relying
cases
district
held
district
program
also
called
drug
testing
absence
individualized
suspicion
district
must
demonstrate
compelling
need
program
appeals
appears
agreed
view
see
vernonia
school
dist
acton
mistake
however
think
phrase
compelling
state
interest
fourth
amendment
context
describes
fixed
minimum
quantum
governmental
concern
one
dispose
case
answering
isolation
question
compelling
state
interest
rather
phrase
describes
interest
appears
important
enough
justify
particular
search
hand
light
factors
show
search
relatively
intrusive
upon
genuine
expectation
privacy
whether
relatively
high
degree
government
concern
necessary
case
think
met
nature
concern
important
indeed
perhaps
compelling
hardly
doubted
deterring
drug
use
nation
schoolchildren
least
important
enhancing
efficient
enforcement
nation
laws
importation
drugs
governmental
concern
von
raab
supra
deterring
drug
use
engineers
trainmen
governmental
concern
skinner
supra
school
years
time
physical
psychological
addictive
effects
drugs
severe
maturing
nervous
systems
critically
impaired
intoxicants
mature
ones
childhood
losses
learning
lifelong
profound
children
grow
chemically
dependent
quickly
adults
record
recovery
depressingly
poor
hawley
bumpy
road
schools
phi
delta
kappan
see
also
estroff
schwartz
hoffmann
adolescent
cocaine
abuse
addictive
potential
behavioral
psychiatric
effects
clinical
pediatrics
kandel
davies
karus
yamaguchi
consequences
young
adulthood
adolescent
drug
involvement
arch
psychiatry
course
effects
school
visited
upon
users
upon
entire
student
body
faculty
vernonia
school
dist
acton
educational
process
disrupted
present
case
moreover
necessity
state
act
magnified
fact
evil
visited
upon
individuals
large
upon
children
undertaken
special
responsibility
care
direction
finally
must
lost
sight
program
directed
narrowly
drug
use
school
athletes
risk
immediate
physical
harm
drug
user
playing
sport
particularly
high
apart
psychological
effects
include
impairment
judgment
slow
reaction
time
lessening
perception
pain
particular
drugs
screened
district
policy
demonstrated
pose
substantial
physical
risks
athletes
amphetamines
produce
artificially
induced
heart
rate
increase
eripheral
vasoconstriction
lood
pressure
increase
asking
normal
fatigue
response
making
dangerous
drug
used
exercise
type
hawkins
drugs
ingesta
effects
athletic
performance
appenzeller
managing
sports
risk
management
strategies
marijuana
causes
rregular
blood
pressure
responses
changes
body
position
eduction
capacity
blood
nhibition
normal
sweating
responses
resulting
increased
body
temperature
cocaine
produces
asoconstriction
levated
blood
pressure
ossible
coronary
artery
spasms
myocardial
infarction
ibid
immediacy
district
concerns
inclined
question
indeed
possibly
find
clearly
erroneous
district
conclusion
large
segment
student
body
particularly
involved
interscholastic
athletics
state
rebellion
isciplinary
actions
reached
epidemic
proportions
rebellion
fueled
alcohol
drug
abuse
vernonia
school
dist
acton
well
student
misperceptions
drug
culture
immediate
crisis
greater
proportions
existed
skinner
upheld
government
drug
testing
program
based
findings
drug
use
railroad
employees
nationwide
without
proof
problem
existed
particular
railroads
whose
employees
subject
test
see
skinner
much
greater
proportions
existed
von
raab
documented
history
drug
use
customs
officials
see
von
raab
scalia
dissenting
efficacy
means
addressing
problem
seems
us
drug
problem
largely
fueled
role
model
effect
athletes
drug
use
particular
danger
athletes
effectively
addressed
making
sure
athletes
use
drugs
respondents
argue
less
intrusive
means
end
available
namely
drug
testing
suspicion
drug
use
brief
respondents
repeatedly
refused
declare
least
intrusive
search
practicable
reasonable
fourth
amendment
skinner
supra
collecting
cases
respondents
alternative
entails
substantial
difficulties
indeed
practicable
may
impracticable
one
thing
simply
parents
willing
accept
random
drug
testing
athletes
willing
accept
accusatory
drug
testing
students
transforms
process
badge
shame
respondents
proposal
brings
risk
teachers
impose
testing
arbitrarily
upon
troublesome
students
generates
expense
defending
lawsuits
charge
arbitrary
imposition
simply
demand
greater
process
accusatory
drug
testing
imposed
least
adds
diversionary
duties
schoolteachers
new
vernonia
school
dist
acton
function
spotting
bringing
account
drug
abuse
task
ill
prepared
readily
compatible
vocation
cf
skinner
supra
quoting
fed
reg
drug
impaired
individual
seldom
display
outward
signs
detectable
lay
person
many
cases
even
physician
goss
powell
dissenting
ongoing
relationship
one
teacher
must
occupy
many
roles
educator
adviser
friend
times
rarely
adversary
nature
omitted
many
respects
think
testing
based
suspicion
drug
use
better
worse
vernonia
school
dist
acton
vi
taking
account
factors
considered
decreased
expectation
privacy
relative
unobtrusiveness
search
severity
need
met
search
conclude
vernonia
policy
reasonable
hence
constitutional
caution
assumption
suspicionless
drug
testing
readily
pass
constitutional
muster
contexts
significant
element
case
first
discussed
policy
undertaken
furtherance
government
responsibilities
public
school
system
guardian
tutor
children
entrusted
care
government
conducts
search
capacity
employer
warrantless
search
absent
employee
desk
obtain
urgently
needed
file
example
relevant
question
whether
intrusion
upon
privacy
one
reasonable
employer
might
engage
see
ortega
also
government
acts
guardian
tutor
relevant
question
whether
search
one
reasonable
guardian
tutor
might
undertake
given
findings
need
made
district
conclude
present
case
may
note
primary
guardians
vernonia
schoolchildren
appear
agree
record
shows
vernonia
school
dist
acton
objection
districtwide
program
parents
couple
us
even
though
described
public
meeting
held
obtain
parents
views
find
insufficient
basis
contradict
judgment
vernonia
parents
school
board
district
reasonably
interest
children
circumstances
ordered
footnotes
despite
fact
like
routine
school
physicals
vaccinations
dissent
apparently
finds
unobjectionable
even
though
blanket
searches
sort
post
search
undertaken
prophylactic
distinctly
nonpunitive
purposes
protecting
student
athletes
injury
deterring
drug
use
student
population
see
dissent
nonetheless
lump
search
together
evidentiary
searches
generally
require
probable
cause
see
supra
student
perspective
test
may
regarded
understood
punishment
post
light
district
findings
regarding
purposes
consequences
testing
perception
definition
irrational
one
protected
nowhere
else
law
event
point
dissent
apparently
believes
post
since
student
vaccinations
physical
exams
constitutionally
reasonable
student
drug
testing
must
well
rather
reason
prevalent
practices
public
schoolchildren
general
student
athletes
particular
diminished
vernonia
school
dist
acton
expectation
privacy
see
supra
basis
dissent
insinuation
upholding
district
policy
equating
fourth
amendment
status
schoolchildren
prisoners
dissent
asserts
may
calls
categorical
protection
strong
preference
individualized
suspicion
requirement
post
case
relies
proposition
bell
wolfish
displays
stronger
preference
individualized
suspicion
today
reiterates
proposition
rely
elaborate
arguments
raise
insuperable
barriers
exercise
virtually
powers
wolfish
supra
quoting
even
wolfish
arguendo
assum
ption
existence
less
intrusive
alternatives
relevant
determination
reasonableness
particular
search
method
issue
support
dissent
opinion
ultimately
rejected
hypothesized
alternative
ground
impair
policies
important
institution
see
monitoring
visits
instead
conducting
body
searches
destroy
confidentiality
intimacy
visits
intended
afford
dissent
devotes
meager
paragraphs
pages
central
aspect
testing
program
see
post
course
shows
none
interest
original
meaning
fourth
amendment
displayed
elsewhere
opinion
see
post
course
time
framing
well
time
adoption
fourteenth
amendment
children
substantially
fewer
rights
legislatures
courts
confer
upon
today
see
kramer
legal
rights
children
ed
wald
children
rights
framework
analysis
rev
vernonia
school
dist
acton
justice
ginsburg
concurring
constantly
observes
school
district
policy
applies
students
voluntarily
participate
interscholastic
athletics
ante
reduced
privacy
expectation
closer
school
regulation
student
athletes
drug
use
athletes
risks
immediate
physical
harm
users
play
correspondingly
severe
sanction
allowed
district
policy
suspension
extracurricular
athletic
programs
ante
comprehend
opinion
reserving
question
whether
district
showing
made
constitutionally
impose
routine
drug
testing
seeking
engage
others
team
sports
students
required
attend
school
cf
edwards
friendly
contrast
search
without
notice
opportunity
avoid
examination
airport
search
passengers
luggage
avoidable
choosing
travel
air
vernonia
school
dist
acton
justice
justice
stevens
justice
souter
join
dissenting
population
nation
public
schools
grades
numbers
around
million
see
dept
education
national
center
education
statistics
digest
education
statistics
table
reasoning
today
decision
millions
students
participate
interscholastic
sports
overwhelming
majority
given
school
officials
reason
whatsoever
suspect
use
drugs
school
open
intrusive
bodily
search
justifying
result
dispenses
requirement
individualized
suspicion
considered
policy
grounds
first
explains
precisely
every
student
athlete
tested
concern
school
officials
might
act
arbitrarily
choosing
test
second
search
regime
reasons
dilutes
accusatory
nature
search
making
policy
arguments
course
sidesteps
powerful
countervailing
privacy
concerns
blanket
searches
involve
thousands
millions
searches
pos
greater
threat
liberty
ones
affec
one
person
time
illinois
krull
dissenting
searches
based
vernonia
school
dist
acton
individualized
suspicion
also
afford
potential
targets
considerable
control
whether
fact
searched
person
avoid
search
acting
objectively
suspicious
way
given
surest
way
avoid
acting
suspiciously
avoid
underlying
wrongdoing
costs
regime
one
think
minimal
whether
blanket
search
better
ante
regime
based
individualized
suspicion
debate
engage
view
open
judges
government
officials
decide
policy
grounds
better
worse
constitutional
history
mass
suspicionless
searches
generally
considered
per
se
unreasonable
within
meaning
fourth
amendment
allowed
exceptions
recent
years
clear
regime
ineffectual
case
dissent
carroll
explained
fourth
amendment
denounce
searches
seizures
unreasonable
applying
standard
first
held
search
car
unreasonable
merely
warrantless
obtaining
warrant
impractical
easily
movable
object
car
explained
warrant
required
also
held
however
warrantless
car
search
unreasonable
unless
supported
level
individualized
suspicion
namely
probable
cause
significantly
base
conclusion
express
probable
cause
requirement
contained
warrant
clause
noted
found
inapplicable
rather
rested
vernonia
school
dist
acton
views
deemed
unreasonable
search
seizure
fourth
amendment
adopted
conserve
public
interests
well
interests
rights
individual
citizens
respect
rights
individual
citizens
eventually
offered
simple
yet
powerful
intuition
lawfully
within
country
entitled
use
public
highways
right
free
passage
without
interruption
search
unless
known
competent
official
authorized
search
probable
cause
believing
vehicles
carrying
contraband
illegal
merchandise
important
purposes
case
clearly
indicated
evenhanded
treatment
substitute
individualized
suspicion
requirement
intolerable
unreasonable
prohibition
agent
authorized
stop
every
automobile
chance
finding
liquor
thus
subject
persons
lawfully
using
highways
inconvenience
indignity
search
vernonia
school
dist
acton
important
indication
historical
materials
framers
opposition
general
searches
stemmed
solely
fact
allowed
officials
single
individuals
arbitrary
reasons
thus
officials
render
reasonable
simply
making
sure
extend
search
every
house
given
area
every
person
given
group
see
delaware
prouse
rehnquist
dissenting
referring
misery
loves
company
theory
fourth
amendment
contrary
although
general
searches
typically
arbitrary
invariably
general
searches
example
vernonia
school
dist
acton
arguably
evenhanded
kind
cuddihy
see
also
indeed
cuddihy
descriptions
blanket
searches
suggests
may
considered
worrisome
typical
general
search
see
one
type
warrant
went
beyond
general
search
searcher
entered
inspected
suspicious
places
requiring
search
entire
categories
places
whether
suspected
exigencies
queen
anne
war
two
colonies
even
authorized
searches
extended
entire
geographic
areas
suspicious
houses
district
conventional
general
warrants
allowed
perhaps
telling
reflected
text
warrant
clause
particular
way
framers
chose
curb
abuses
general
warrants
implication
general
searches
impose
novel
evenhandedness
requirement
retain
individualized
suspicion
requirement
contained
typical
general
warrant
make
requirement
meaningful
enforceable
instance
raising
required
level
individualized
suspicion
objective
probable
cause
see
amdt
example
congress
proposed
fourth
amendment
authorized
duty
collectors
search
concealed
goods
subject
import
duties
specific
warrants
required
searches
land
even
searches
sea
warrants
impractical
thus
required
congress
nonetheless
limited
officials
searching
ships
vessels
collector
shall
reason
suspect
goods
wares
merchandise
subject
duty
shall
concealed
collection
act
july
stat
emphasis
added
see
also
cuddihy
collection
act
significant
early
search
statutes
identified
techniques
search
seizure
framers
vernonia
school
dist
acton
amendment
believed
reasonable
framing
surprisingly
carroll
relied
statute
subsequent
ones
like
arriving
views
see
carroll
cf
clancy
supra
plain
language
amendment
mandate
individualized
suspicion
necessary
component
searches
seizures
historical
record
demonstrates
framers
believed
individualized
suspicion
inherent
quality
reasonable
searches
seizures
true
searches
around
time
fourth
amendment
adopted
required
individualized
suspicion
although
search
incident
arrest
obvious
example
one
see
cuddihy
even
searches
shared
essential
characteristics
distinguish
searches
abusive
general
searches
affec
one
person
time
krull
dissenting
generally
avoidable
refraining
wrongdoing
see
supra
protection
privacy
evenhandedness
touchstone
fourth
amendment
view
mass
suspicionless
searches
however
evenhanded
generally
unreasonable
remains
inviolate
criminal
law
enforcement
context
see
ybarra
illinois
invalidating
evenhanded
nonaccusatory
patdown
weapons
patrons
tavern
probable
cause
think
drug
dealing
going
least
search
minimally
intrusive
see
michigan
dept
state
police
sitz
upholding
brief
easily
avoidable
detention
purposes
observing
signs
intoxication
motorists
approaching
roadblock
worth
noting
regard
collection
testing
urine
perhaps
intrusive
searches
vernonia
school
dist
acton
see
bell
wolfish
visual
body
cavity
searches
still
particularly
destructive
privacy
offensive
personal
dignity
treasury
employees
von
raab
scalia
dissenting
see
also
ante
skinner
railway
labor
executives
hesitated
treat
monitored
bowel
movements
highly
intrusive
even
special
border
search
context
compare
brief
interrogative
stops
motorists
crossing
certain
border
checkpoint
reasonable
without
individualized
suspicion
montoya
de
hernandez
monitored
bowel
movement
border
crossers
reasonable
upon
reasonable
suspicion
alimentary
canal
smuggling
easy
draw
distinction
see
fried
privacy
yale
culture
excretory
functions
shielded
less
absolute
privacy
certainly
monitored
urination
combined
urine
testing
intrusive
personal
searches
said
trigger
fourth
amendment
protections
past
see
cupp
murphy
stewart
characterizing
scraping
dirt
person
fingernails
severe
though
brief
intrusion
upon
cherished
personal
security
finally
collection
testing
urine
course
search
person
one
four
categories
suspect
searches
constitution
mentions
name
see
amdt
listing
persons
houses
papers
effects
cf
cuddihy
indicating
long
history
outrage
personal
searches
thus
remains
law
police
say
subject
drug
testing
every
person
entering
leaving
certain
neighborhood
order
find
evidence
crime
lafave
search
seizure
pp
ed
hereinafter
lafave
vernonia
school
dist
acton
true
even
though
hard
think
compelling
government
interest
need
fight
scourge
drugs
streets
neighborhoods
otherwise
evenhanded
enough
justify
evaluating
search
regime
balancing
test
warrant
clause
presupposes
category
searches
individualized
suspicion
see
lafave
dead
letter
outside
criminal
context
however
response
exigencies
modern
life
cases
upheld
several
evenhanded
blanket
searches
including
minimally
intrusive
balancing
invasion
privacy
government
strong
need
cases
course
distinguishable
insofar
involved
searches
either
personally
intrusive
nature
searches
closely
regulated
businesses
see
new
york
burger
cf
cuddihy
even
strongest
constitutional
restrictions
general
searches
long
exposed
commercial
establishments
warrantless
inspection
arising
unique
contexts
prisons
see
wolfish
supra
visual
body
cavity
searches
prisoners
following
contact
visits
cf
cuddihy
indicating
searches
incident
arrest
prisoner
searches
common
personal
searches
time
founding
certainly
explains
justice
scalia
dissent
recent
von
raab
decision
found
significant
ntil
today
upheld
bodily
search
separate
arrest
without
individualized
suspicion
respect
prison
inmates
relying
upon
uniquely
dangerous
nature
environment
von
raab
supra
citation
omitted
event
many
cases
vernonia
school
dist
acton
distinguished
grounds
suggested
important
cases
see
skinner
supra
blanket
drug
testing
scheme
von
raab
supra
cf
camara
municipal
san
francisco
searches
private
residences
upheld
suspicionless
search
first
recognizing
fourth
amendment
longstanding
preference
search
regime
pointing
sound
reasons
regime
likely
ineffectual
unusual
circumstances
presented
skinner
example
stated
outright
quantum
individualized
suspicion
usually
required
fourth
amendment
skinner
supra
quoting
built
requirement
test
announced
limited
circumstances
privacy
interests
implicated
search
minimal
important
governmental
interest
furthered
intrusion
placed
jeopardy
requirement
individualized
suspicion
search
may
reasonable
despite
absence
suspicion
ibid
emphasis
added
obvious
negative
implication
reasoning
individualized
suspicion
requirement
place
government
objectives
jeopardy
requirement
forsaken
see
also
von
raab
supra
accordingly
upheld
suspicionless
regime
issue
skinner
firm
understanding
requirement
individualized
suspicion
testing
train
operators
drug
alcohol
impairment
following
serious
train
accidents
unworkable
scene
serious
rail
accident
chaotic
skinner
course
plausibly
argued
fact
testing
occurred
train
operators
involved
serious
train
accidents
amounted
individualized
suspicion
requirement
vernonia
school
dist
acton
name
light
record
evidence
strong
link
serious
train
accidents
drug
alcohol
use
performed
similar
inquiry
cases
well
see
von
raab
supra
suspicion
requirement
searches
customs
officials
drug
impairment
impractical
feasible
subject
employees
work
product
kind
scrutiny
norm
traditional
office
environments
camara
supra
suspicion
requirement
searches
homes
safety
code
violations
impractical
conditions
faulty
wiring
observable
outside
house
see
also
wolfish
suspicion
requirement
searches
prisoners
smuggling
following
contact
visits
impractical
observation
necessary
gain
suspicion
cause
obvious
disruption
confidentiality
intimacy
visits
intended
afford
supra
requirement
stops
major
routes
inland
always
based
reasonable
suspicion
impractical
flow
traffic
tends
heavy
allow
particularized
study
given
car
enable
identified
possible
carrier
illegal
aliens
edwards
friendly
searches
airport
passengers
luggage
impractical
great
number
plane
travelers
conceded
inapplicability
profile
method
detecting
hijackers
moreover
individualized
suspicion
requirement
often
impractical
cases
involved
situations
even
one
undetected
instance
wrongdoing
injurious
consequences
great
number
people
see
camara
supra
even
one
safety
code
violation
cause
fires
epidemics
ravage
large
urban
areas
skinner
supra
even
one
train
operator
lead
disastrous
consequences
vernonia
school
dist
acton
train
wreck
great
human
loss
von
raab
supra
even
one
customs
official
caught
drugs
virtue
impairment
susceptibility
bribes
indifference
result
noninterdiction
sizable
drug
shipmen
eventually
injures
lives
thousands
breach
national
security
edwards
supra
even
one
hijacked
airplane
destroy
hundreds
human
lives
millions
dollars
property
instant
case
stands
marked
contrast
one
searches
today
majority
opinion
vain
recognition
history
precedent
establish
individualized
suspicion
usually
required
fourth
amendment
regardless
whether
warrant
probable
cause
also
required
area
intrusive
personal
searches
recognized
exception
situations
scheme
likely
ineffectual
see
supra
far
acknowledging
anything
special
individualized
suspicion
treats
regime
less
intrusive
alternative
alternative
officials
may
bypass
lesser
intrusion
reasonable
estimation
outweighed
policy
concerns
unrelated
practicability
initial
matter
serious
doubts
whether
right
district
reasonably
found
lesser
intrusion
testing
program
outweighed
genuine
concerns
adversarial
nature
program
abuses
see
ante
one
thing
significant
safeguards
abuses
fear
regime
lead
testing
troublesome
students
example
ignores
required
level
suspicion
school
context
objectively
reasonable
suspicion
respect
vernonia
school
dist
acton
facts
decision
new
jersey
reassuring
found
reasonable
suspicion
search
girl
purse
cigarettes
teacher
caught
girl
smoking
bathroom
companion
admitted
see
moreover
distress
arising
turns
false
accusation
minimized
keeping
entire
process
confidential
another
thing
district
concern
adversarial
nature
regime
appears
extend
even
rightly
accused
seems
ignore
fact
regime
exist
vacuum
schools
already
adversarial
disciplinary
schemes
require
teachers
administrators
many
areas
besides
drug
use
investigate
student
wrongdoing
often
means
accusatory
searches
make
determinations
whether
wrongdoing
occurred
impose
punishment
scheme
drug
testing
minor
addition
district
elaborate
disciplinary
scheme
reflected
handbook
among
things
lists
following
disciplinary
problem
areas
carrying
serious
sanctions
defiance
authority
disorderly
disruptive
conduct
including
foul
language
automobile
use
misuse
forgery
lying
gambling
theft
tobacco
mischief
vandalism
recklessly
endangering
menacing
harassment
assault
fighting
weapons
extortion
explosive
devices
arson
record
exh
see
also
listing
rules
regulating
dress
grooming
public
displays
affection
wearing
hats
inside
cf
responsibilities
schools
include
develop
distribute
parents
students
reasonable
rules
regulations
governing
student
behavior
attendance
provide
fair
vernonia
school
dist
acton
reasonable
standards
conduct
enforce
standards
appropriate
disciplinary
action
high
number
disciplinary
referrals
record
case
illustrates
district
robust
scheme
action
addition
overstating
concerns
program
district
seems
understated
extent
program
less
intrusive
students
privacy
invading
privacy
students
rather
many
nationwide
thousands
rather
millions
giving
potential
search
targets
substantial
control
whether
fact
searched
scheme
significantly
less
intrusive
event
whether
right
district
reasonably
weighed
lesser
intrusion
scheme
policy
concerns
beside
point
stated
search
regime
less
intrusive
alternative
individualized
suspicion
requirement
legal
pedigree
old
fourth
amendment
may
easily
cast
aside
name
policy
concerns
may
forsaken
cases
personal
search
context
established
regime
likely
ineffectual
misconstrued
fundamental
role
individualized
suspicion
requirement
fourth
amendment
analysis
never
seriously
engages
practicality
requirement
instant
case
failure
crucial
nowhere
less
clear
individualized
suspicion
requirement
ineffectual
school
context
schools
entire
pool
potential
search
targets
students
constant
supervision
teachers
administrators
coaches
classrooms
hallways
locker
rooms
see
proper
educational
environment
vernonia
school
dist
acton
requires
close
supervision
schoolchildren
record
indicates
vernonia
schools
exception
great
irony
case
though
evidence
district
introduced
justify
suspicionless
program
consisted
stories
particular
identifiable
students
acting
ways
plainly
gave
rise
reasonable
suspicion
drug
use
thus
justified
search
decision
see
warrant
probable
cause
required
school
searches
reasonable
suspicion
sufficient
small
groups
students
example
observed
teacher
passing
joints
back
forth
across
street
restaurant
school
school
hours
tr
apr
another
group
caught
skipping
school
using
drugs
one
students
houses
see
several
students
actually
admitted
drug
use
school
officials
caught
marijuana
pipes
see
one
student
presented
teacher
clearly
obviously
inebriated
sent
home
still
another
observed
dancing
singing
top
voice
back
classroom
teacher
asked
going
replied
well
high
life
take
final
example
certain
road
trip
school
wrestling
coach
smelled
marijuana
smoke
hotel
room
occupied
four
wrestlers
see
observation
questioning
probably
given
reasonable
suspicion
test
one
cf
lafave
instances
evidence
wrongdoing
prompting
teachers
principals
conduct
searches
sufficiently
detailed
specific
meet
traditional
probable
cause
test
light
evidence
drug
use
particular
students
substantial
basis
concluding
vernonia
school
dist
acton
vigorous
regime
testing
district
appears
already
rules
place
see
record
exh
gone
long
way
toward
solving
vernonia
school
drug
problem
preserving
fourth
amendment
rights
james
acton
others
like
doubt
conclusion
removed
indications
record
testing
supplemented
equally
vigorous
campaign
vernonia
parents
encourage
children
submit
district
voluntary
drug
testing
program
see
describing
voluntary
program
ante
noting
widespread
parental
support
drug
testing
circumstances
fourth
amendment
dictates
mass
suspicionless
search
regime
categorically
unreasonable
recognize
scheme
even
reasonably
effective
controlling
drug
use
may
effective
mass
suspicionless
testing
regime
one
sense
obviously
true
obviously
true
law
enforcement
effective
mass
suspicionless
enforcement
might
nothing
new
realization
fourth
amendment
protections
come
price
arizona
hicks
indeed
price
pay
higher
criminal
context
given
police
closely
observe
entire
class
potential
search
targets
citizens
area
must
ordinarily
adhere
rigid
requirements
warrant
probable
cause
principal
counterargument
central
opinion
fourth
amendment
lenient
respect
school
searches
doubt
correct
explains
ante
schools
traditionally
special
responsibilities
children
necessitate
degree
constitutional
leeway
principle
explains
vernonia
school
dist
acton
considerable
fourth
amendment
leeway
gave
school
officials
case
held
children
school
enjoy
two
fourth
amendment
traditional
categorical
protections
unreasonable
searches
seizures
warrant
requirement
probable
cause
requirement
see
true
even
though
children
enjoy
protections
nonschool
setting
powell
concurring
instant
case
however
asks
whether
fourth
amendment
even
lenient
whether
lenient
students
may
deprived
fourth
amendment
remaining
basic
categorical
protection
strong
preference
individualized
suspicion
requirement
accompanying
antipathy
toward
personally
intrusive
blanket
searches
mostly
innocent
people
clear
people
prison
lack
categorical
protection
see
wolfish
upholding
certain
suspicionless
searches
prison
inmates
cf
supra
indicating
suspicion
requirement
impractical
wolfish
said
yet
ready
hold
schools
prisons
need
equated
purposes
fourth
amendment
supra
thus
mean
often
proclaim
students
shed
constitutional
rights
schoolhouse
gate
tinker
des
moines
independent
community
school
answer
must
plainly
vernonia
school
dist
acton
contrary
position
relies
cases
ingraham
wright
goss
lopez
see
ante
find
reliance
cases
ironic
anything
affirm
schools
substantial
constitutional
leeway
carrying
traditional
mission
responding
particularized
wrongdoing
see
supra
leeway
investigating
particularized
wrongdoing
ingraham
supra
leeway
punishing
particularized
wrongdoing
goss
supra
leeway
choosing
procedures
particularized
wrongdoing
punished
contrast
intrusive
blanket
searches
school
children
innocent
evidence
serious
wrongdoing
part
traditional
school
function
aware
indeed
many
schools
like
many
parents
prefer
trust
children
unless
given
reason
otherwise
james
acton
father
said
witness
stand
suspicionless
testing
sends
message
children
trying
responsible
citizens
prove
innocent
think
kind
sets
bad
tone
vernonia
school
dist
acton
citizenship
tr
apr
find
unpersuasive
reliance
ante
widespread
practice
physical
examinations
vaccinations
blanket
searches
sort
course
practices
fourth
amendment
significance
assume
physical
exams
vaccinations
typically
required
similar
extent
urine
testing
collection
required
instant
case
required
regardless
parental
objection
meaningful
sanction
attaches
failure
submit
event
without
forming
particular
view
searches
worth
noting
suspicion
requirement
vaccinations
merely
impractical
nonsensical
vaccinations
searches
anything
particular
nothing
suspicious
saying
anything
new
theory
part
repeatedly
upheld
certain
inventory
searches
see
south
dakota
opperman
approach
unhelpful
analysis
centers
upon
reasonableness
routine
administrative
caretaking
functions
physical
examinations
practicability
suspicion
requirement
highly
doubtful
conditions
physical
exams
ordinarily
search
latent
heart
conditions
manifest
observable
behavior
way
school
drug
use
see
supra
might
also
noted
physical
exams
course
vaccinations
searches
conditions
reflect
wrongdoing
part
student
wholly
nonaccusatory
consequences
regarded
punitive
facts
may
explain
absence
fourth
amendment
challenges
searches
contrast
although
agree
accusatory
nature
district
testing
vernonia
school
dist
acton
program
diluted
making
blanket
one
testing
program
searches
conditions
plainly
reflecting
serious
wrongdoing
never
made
wholly
nonaccusatory
student
perspective
motives
program
notwithstanding
reason
substantial
consequences
flow
positive
test
suspension
sports
invariably
quite
reasonably
understood
punishment
best
proof
district
testing
program
extent
accusatory
found
james
acton
explanation
witness
stand
want
submit
drug
testing
feel
reason
think
taking
drugs
tr
apr
hard
think
manner
explanation
resonates
intensely
fourth
amendment
tradition
ii
believe
suspicionless
drug
testing
justified
facts
even
agreed
testing
reasonable
see
two
fourth
amendment
flaws
district
program
first
serious
virtually
evidence
record
drug
problem
washington
grade
school
includes
grades
acton
attended
litigation
began
surprising
given
four
witnesses
testified
incidents
three
teachers
coaches
high
school
see
tr
fourth
though
principal
grade
school
time
litigation
vernonia
school
dist
acton
employed
principal
high
school
years
leading
beyond
implementation
drug
testing
policy
see
evidence
grade
school
drug
problem
review
record
uncovered
guarantee
grade
school
principal
problems
start
high
school
level
started
elementary
school
hope
single
assertion
sort
serve
adequate
basis
uphold
mass
suspicionless
drug
testing
two
entire
grades
vernonia
reasoning
school
districts
well
perhaps
drug
problem
grade
school
one
know
record
least
insist
parties
district
address
issue
remand
second
even
high
school
find
unreasonable
school
choice
student
athletes
class
subject
suspicionless
testing
choice
appears
driven
belief
pass
constitutional
muster
see
indicating
original
program
targeted
students
involved
extracurricular
activity
belief
required
meet
district
principal
disciplinary
concern
reading
full
record
case
well
district
authoritative
summary
supp
seems
quite
obvious
true
driving
force
behind
district
adoption
drug
testing
program
need
combat
rise
disorder
disruption
classrooms
around
campus
mean
criticism
strength
interest
contrary
record
demonstrates
existence
problem
interest
seems
compelling
without
first
establishing
discipline
maintaining
order
teachers
begin
educate
vernonia
school
dist
acton
students
powell
concurring
record
case
surely
demonstrates
discipline
problem
vernonia
epidemic
proportions
evidence
sports
injury
problem
vernonia
contrast
considerably
weaker
record
seems
far
reasonable
choice
focus
class
students
found
violated
published
school
rules
severe
disruption
class
around
campus
see
record
exh
disruption
strong
nexus
drug
use
district
established
trial
choice
share
two
virtues
regime
testing
dramatically
fewer
students
tens
hundreds
giving
students
control
behavior
likelihood
tested
moreover
reduced
concern
accusatory
nature
search
feared
badge
shame
ante
already
exist
due
antecedent
accusation
finding
severe
disruption
lesser
known
aspect
skinner
upheld
analogous
testing
scheme
little
hesitation
see
skinner
describing
authorization
test
cause
scheme
according
train
operators
tested
event
certain
specific
rule
violations
including
noncompliance
signal
excessive
speeding
iii
often
stated
greatest
threats
constitutional
freedoms
come
times
crisis
must
also
stay
mindful
government
responses
times
hysterical
overreactions
crises
quite
real
serve
precisely
compelling
state
interest
vernonia
school
dist
acton
said
may
justify
measured
intrusion
constitutional
rights
way
judges
mediate
conflicting
impulses
anyway
stay
close
record
case
appears
make
judgments
based
alone
reviewed
record
avoid
conclusion
district
suspicionless
policy
testing
sweeps
broadly
imprecisely
reasonable
fourth
amendment
says
pay
short
shrift
original
meaning
fourth
amendment
relates
searches
public
school
children
see
ante
initial
matter
historical
materials
framers
thought
official
searches
children
let
alone
public
school
children
concept
exist
time
see
extremely
scarce
perhaps
offer
account
original
meaning
rather
vernonia
school
dist
acton
resorts
general
proposition
children
fewer
recognized
rights
time
framing
today
proposition
seems
uniquely
unhelpful
present
case
although
children
may
fewer
rights
private
schoolmaster
time
framing
public
school
officials
today
parents
plainly
greater
rights
time
framing
example
fact
child
parents
refused
authorize
private
schoolmaster
search
child
probably
rendered
search
unlawful
common
law
source
schoolmaster
authority
child
delegation
parent
authority
see
today
course
fact
child
parents
refuse
authorize
public
school
search
child
james
acton
parents
refused
little
constitutional
moment
cf
ingraham
wright
parental
approval
corporal
punishment
constitutionally
required
agree
may
assume
district
program
allows
students
confine
advanced
disclosure
highly
personal
prescription
medications
testing
lab
see
ante
also
agree
skinner
controls
aspect
case
count
disclosure
requirement
among
program
flaws
page