wisconsin yoder argued december decided may respondents members old order amish religion conservative amish mennonite church convicted violating wisconsin compulsory law requires child school attendance age declining send children public private school graduated eighth grade evidence showed amish provide continuing informal vocational education children designed prepare life rural amish community evidence also showed respondents sincerely believed high school attendance contrary amish religion way life endanger salvation children complying law state sustained respondents claim application compulsory law violated rights free exercise clause first amendment made applicable fourteenth amendment held state interest universal education totally free balancing process impinges fundamental rights specifically protected free exercise clause first amendment traditional interest parents respect religious upbringing children pp respondents amply supported claim enforcement compulsory formal education requirement eighth grade gravely endanger destroy free exercise religious beliefs pp aided history three centuries identifiable religious sect long history successful segment american society amish demonstrated sincerity religious beliefs interrelationship belief mode life vital role belief daily conduct play continuing survival old order amish communities hazards presented state enforcement statute generally valid others beyond carried difficult burden demonstrating adequacy alternative mode continuing informal vocational education terms overall interests state relies support program compulsory high school education light showing weighing minimal difference state require amish already accept incumbent state show particularity admittedly strong interest compulsory education adversely affected granting exemption amish pp state claim empowered parens patriae extend benefit secondary education children regardless wishes parents sustained free exercise claim nature revealed record amish introduced convincing evidence accommodating religious objections forgoing one two additional years compulsory education impair physical mental health child result inability discharge duties responsibilities citizenship way materially detract welfare society pp burger delivered opinion brennan stewart white marshall blackmun joined stewart filed concurring opinion brennan joined post white filed concurring opinion brennan stewart joined post douglas filed opinion dissenting part post powell rehnquist took part consideration decision case john calhoun assistant attorney general wisconsin argued cause petitioner briefs robert warren attorney general william wilker assistant attorney general william ball argued cause respondents brief joseph skelly briefs amici curiae urging affirmance filed donald showalter mennonite central committee boardman noland lee boothby general conference adventists william ellis national council churches christ nathan lewin national jewish commission law public affairs leo pfeffer synagogue council america et al chief justice burger delivered opinion petition state wisconsin granted writ certiorari case review decision wisconsin holding respondents convictions violating state compulsory law invalid free exercise clause first amendment constitution made applicable fourteenth amendment reasons hereafter stated affirm judgment wisconsin respondents jonas yoder wallace miller members old order amish religion respondent adin yutzy member conservative amish mennonite church families residents green county wisconsin wisconsin compulsory law required cause children attend public private school reaching age respondents declined send children ages public school completed eighth grade children enrolled private school within recognized exception law conceded subject wisconsin statute complaint school district administrator public schools respondents charged tried convicted violating law green country fined sum respondents defended ground application law violated rights first fourteenth amendments trial testimony showed respondents believed accordance tenets old order amish communities generally children attendance high school public private contrary amish religion way life believed sending children high school expose danger censure church community found county also endanger salvation children state stipulated respondents religious beliefs sincere support position respondents presented expert witnesses scholars religion education whose testimony uncontradicted expressed opinions relationship amish belief concerning school attendance general tenets religion described impact compulsory high school attendance continued survival amish communities exist today history amish sect given detail beginning swiss anabaptists century rejected institutionalized churches sought return early simple christian life material success rejecting competitive spirit seeking insulate modern world result common heritage old order amish communities today characterized fundamental belief salvation requires life church community separate apart world worldly influence concept life aloof world values central faith related feature old order amish communities devotion life harmony nature soil exemplified simple life early christian era continued america much early national life amish beliefs require members community make living farming closely related activities broadly speaking old order amish religion pervades determines entire mode life adherents conduct regulated great detail ordnung rules church community adult baptism occurs late adolescence time amish young people voluntarily undertake heavy obligations unlike bar mitzvah jews abide rules church community amish objection formal education beyond eighth grade firmly grounded central religious concepts object high school higher education generally values teach marked variance amish values amish way life view secondary school education impermissible exposure children worldly influence conflict beliefs high school tends emphasize intellectual scientific accomplishments competitiveness worldly success social life students amish society emphasizes informal life goodness rather life intellect wisdom rather technical knowledge community welfare rather competition separation rather integration contemporary worldly society formal high school education beyond eighth grade contrary amish beliefs places amish children environment hostile amish beliefs increasing emphasis competition class work sports pressure conform styles manners ways peer group also takes away community physically emotionally crucial formative adolescent period life period children must acquire amish attitudes favoring manual work specific skills needed perform adult role amish farmer housewife must learn enjoy physical labor child learned basic reading writing elementary mathematics traits skills attitudes admittedly fall within category best learned example rather classroom time life amish child must also grow faith relationship amish community prepared accept heavy obligations imposed adult baptism short high school attendance teachers amish faith may even hostile interposes serious barrier integration amish child amish religious community john hostetler one experts amish society testified modern high school equipped curriculum social environment impart values promoted amish society amish object elementary education first eight grades general proposition agree children must basic skills three order read bible good farmers citizens able deal people necessary course daily affairs view basic education acceptable significantly expose children worldly values interfere development amish community crucial adolescent period amish accept compulsory elementary education generally wherever possible established elementary schools many respects like small local schools past amish belief higher learning tends develop values reject influences alienate man god basis considerations hostetler testified compulsory high school attendance result great psychological harm amish children conflicts produce also opinion ultimately result destruction old order amish church community exists today testimony donald erickson expert witness education also showed amish succeed preparing high school age children productive members amish community described system learning skills directly relevant adult roles amish community ideal perhaps superior ordinary high school education evidence also showed amish excellent record generally members society although trial careful findings determined wisconsin compulsory law interfere freedom defendants act accordance sincere religious belief also concluded requirement high school attendance age reasonable constitutional exercise governmental power therefore denied motion dismiss charges wisconsin circuit affirmed convictions wisconsin however sustained respondents claim free exercise clause first amendment reversed convictions majority opinion state failed make adequate showing interest establishing maintaining educational system overrides defendants right free exercise religion doubt power state high responsibility education citizens impose reasonable regulations control duration basic education see pierce society sisters providing public schools ranks apex function state yet even paramount responsibility pierce made yield right parents provide equivalent education privately operated system held oregon statute compelling attendance public school age eight age unreasonably interfered interest parents directing rearing offspring including education schools case suggests values parental direction religious upbringing education children early formative years high place society see also ginsberg new york meyer nebraska cf rowan post office thus state interest universal education however highly rank totally free balancing process impinges fundamental rights interests specifically protected free exercise clause first amendment traditional interest parents respect religious upbringing children long words pierce prepare additional obligations follows order wisconsin compel school attendance beyond eighth grade claim attendance interferes practice legitimate religious belief must appear either state deny free exercise religious belief requirement state interest sufficient magnitude override interest claiming protection free exercise clause long general acknowledgment need universal formal education religion clauses specifically firmly fixed right free exercise religious beliefs buttressing fundamental right equally firm even less explicit prohibition establishment religion government values underlying two provisions relating religion zealously protected sometimes even expense interests admittedly high social importance invalidation financial aid parochial schools government grants salary subsidy teachers one example extent courts gone regard notwithstanding aid programs legislatively determined public interest service sound educational policy congress lemon kurtzman tilton richardson see also everson board education essence said written subject interests highest order otherwise served overbalance legitimate claims free exercise religion accept settled therefore however strong state interest universal compulsory education means absolute exclusion subordination interests sherbert verner mcgowan maryland separate opinion frankfurter prince massachusetts ii come quality claims respondents concerning alleged encroachment wisconsin compulsory statute rights rights children free exercise religious beliefs forebears adhered almost three centuries evaluating claims must careful determine whether amish religious faith mode life claim inseparable interdependent way life however virtuous admirable may interposed barrier reasonable state regulation education based purely secular considerations protection religion clauses claims must rooted religious belief although determination religious belief practice entitled constitutional protection may present delicate question concept ordered liberty precludes allowing every person make standards matters conduct society whole important interests thus amish asserted claims subjective evaluation rejection contemporary secular values accepted majority much thoreau rejected social values time isolated walden pond claims rest religious basis thoreau choice philosophical personal rather religious belief rise demands religion clauses giving weight secular considerations however see record case abundantly supports claim traditional way life amish merely matter personal preference one deep religious conviction shared organized group intimately related daily living old order amish daily life religious practice stem faith shown fact response literal interpretation biblical injunction epistle paul romans conformed world command fundamental amish faith moreover old order amish religion simply matter theocratic belief expert witnesses explained old order amish religion pervades determines virtually entire way life regulating detail talmudic diet strictly enforced rules church community record shows respondents religious beliefs attitude toward life family home remained constant perhaps say static period unparalleled progress human knowledge generally great changes education respondents freely concede indeed assert article faith religious beliefs today call life style altered fundamentals centuries way life community separated outside world worldly influences attachment nature soil way inherently simple uncomplicated albeit difficult preserve pressure conform rejection telephones automobiles radios television mode dress speech habits manual work indeed set apart much contemporary society customs symbolic practical society around amish become populous urban industrialized complex particularly century government regulation human affairs correspondingly become detailed pervasive amish mode life thus come conflict increasingly requirements contemporary society exerting hydraulic insistence conformity majoritarian standards long compulsory education laws confined eight grades elementary basic education imparted nearby rural schoolhouse large proportion students amish faith old order amish little basis fear school attendance expose children worldly influence reject modern compulsory secondary education rural areas largely carried consolidated school often remote student home alien daily home life record strongly shows values programs modern secondary school sharp conflict fundamental mode life mandated amish religion modern laws requiring compulsory secondary education accordingly engendered great concern conflict conclusion inescapable secondary schooling exposing amish children worldly influences terms attitudes goals values contrary beliefs substantially interfering religious development amish child integration way life amish faith community crucial adolescent stage development contravenes basic religious tenets practice amish faith parent child impact law respondents practice amish religion severe inescapable wisconsin law affirmatively compels threat criminal sanction perform acts undeniably odds fundamental tenets religious beliefs see braunfeld brown impact law confined grave interference important amish religious tenets subjective point view carries precisely kind objective danger free exercise religion first amendment designed prevent record shows compulsory school attendance age amish children carries real threat undermining amish community religious practice exist today must either abandon belief assimilated society large forced migrate tolerant region sum unchallenged testimony acknowledged experts education religious history almost years consistent practice strong evidence sustained faith pervading regulating respondents entire mode life support claim enforcement state requirement compulsory formal education eighth grade gravely endanger destroy free exercise respondents religious beliefs iii neither findings trial amish claims nature faith challenged state wisconsin position state interest universal compulsory formal secondary education age great paramount undisputed claims respondents mode preparing youth amish life traditional elementary education essential part religious belief practice state undertake meet claim amish mode life education inseparable part basic tenets religion indeed much part religious belief practices baptism confessional sabbath may others wisconsin concedes religion clauses religious beliefs absolutely free state control argues actions even though religiously grounded outside protection first amendment decisions rejected idea religiously grounded conduct always outside protection free exercise clause true activities individuals even religiously based often subject regulation exercise undoubted power promote health safety general welfare federal government exercise delegated powers see gillette braunfeld brown prince massachusetts reynolds agree religiously grounded conduct must often subject broad police power state deny areas conduct protected free exercise clause first amendment thus beyond power state control even regulations general applicability sherbert verner murdock pennsylvania cantwell connecticut case therefore become easier respondents convicted actions refusing send children public high school context belief action neatly confined compartments cf lemon kurtzman case disposed grounds wisconsin requirement school attendance age applies uniformly citizens state face discriminate religions particular religion motivated legitimate secular concerns regulation neutral face may application nonetheless offend constitutional requirement governmental neutrality unduly burdens free exercise religion sherbert verner supra cf walz tax commission must ignore danger exception general obligation citizenship religious grounds may run afoul establishment clause danger allowed prevent exception matter vital may protection values promoted right free exercise preserving doctrinal flexibility recognizing need sensible realistic application religion clauses able chart course preserved autonomy freedom religious bodies avoiding semblance established religion tight rope one successfully traversed walz tax commission supra state advances two primary arguments support system compulsory education notes thomas jefferson pointed early history degree education necessary prepare citizens participate effectively intelligently open political system preserve freedom independence education prepares individuals participants society accept propositions however evidence adduced amish case persuasively effect additional one two years formal high school amish children place program informal vocational education little serve interests respondents experts testified trial without challenge value education must assessed terms capacity prepare child life one thing say compulsory education year two beyond eighth grade may necessary goal preparation child life modern society majority live quite another goal education viewed preparation child life separated agrarian community keystone amish faith see meyer nebraska state attacks respondents position one fostering ignorance child must protected state one question state duty protect children ignorance argument square facts disclosed record whatever idiosyncrasies seen majority record strongly shows amish community highly successful social unit within society even apart conventional mainstream members productive members society reject public welfare usual modern forms congress recognized authorizing exemption groups amish obligation pay social security taxes neither fair correct suggest amish opposed education beyond eighth grade level record shows opposed conventional formal education type provided certified high school comes child crucial adolescent period religious development donald erickson example testified system ideal system education terms preparing amish children life adults amish community inclined say better job rest us put people purporting learned people seems community best evidence point whatever done seems function well must forget middle ages important values civilization western world preserved members religious orders isolated worldly influences great obstacles assumption today majority right amish others like wrong way life odd even erratic interferes rights interests others condemned different state however supports interest providing additional one two years compulsory high school education amish children possibility children choose leave amish community occurs life state argues amish children leave church position making way world without education available one two additional years state requires however record argument highly speculative specific evidence loss amish adherents attrition showing upon leaving amish community amish children practical agricultural training habits industry become burdens society educational indeed argument state appears rest primarily state mistaken assumption already noted amish provide education children beyond eighth grade allow grow ignorance contrary amish accept necessity formal schooling eighth grade level continue provide characterized undisputed testimony expert educators ideal vocational education children adolescent years nothing record suggest amish qualities reliability dedication work fail find ready markets today society absent contrary evidence supporting state position unwilling assume persons possessing valuable vocational skills habits doomed become burdens society determine leave amish faith basis record warrant finding additional one two years formal school education beyond eighth grade serve eliminate problem might exist insofar state claim rests view brief additional period formal education imperative enable amish participate effectively intelligently democratic process must fall amish alternative formal secondary school education enabled function effectively life limitations relations world survive prosper contemporary society separate sharply identifiable highly community years country strong evidence capable fulfilling social political responsibilities citizenship without compelled attendance beyond eighth grade price jeopardizing free exercise religious belief thomas jefferson emphasized need education bulwark free people tyranny nothing indicate mind compulsory education fixed age beyond basic education indeed amish communities singularly parallel reflect many virtues jefferson ideal sturdy yeoman form basis considered ideal democratic society even idiosyncratic separateness exemplifies diversity profess admire encourage requirement compulsory education beyond eighth grade relatively recent development history less years ago educational requirements almost satisfied completion elementary grades least child regularly lawfully employed independence successful social functioning amish community period approaching almost three centuries years country strong evidence best speculative gain terms meeting duties citizenship additional one two years compulsory formal education background require particularized showing state point justify severe interference religious freedom additional compulsory attendance entail also note compulsory education child labor laws find historical origin common humanitarian instincts age limits laws coordinated achieve related objectives context case considerations anything support rather detract respondents position origins requirement school attendance age age falling completion elementary school completion high school entirely clear extent laws reflected movement prohibit child labor age culminated provisions federal fair labor standards act true child labor age limit may degree derive contemporary impression children school age time denied conversely education limit reflects substantial measure concern children age employed conditions hazardous health work performed adults requirement compulsory schooling age must therefore viewed aimed merely providing educational opportunities children alternative equally undesirable consequence unhealthful child labor displacing adult workers hand forced idleness two kinds statutes compulsory school attendance child labor laws tend keep children certain ages labor market school regimen turn provides opportunity prepare livelihood higher order children pursue without education protects health adolescence terms wisconsin interest compelling school attendance amish children age emerges somewhat less substantial requiring attendance children generally agricultural employment totally outside legitimate concerns child labor laws employment children parental guidance family farm age age ancient tradition lies periphery objectives laws intimation amish employment children family farms way deleterious health amish parents exploit children tender years inference contrary record us moreover employment amish children family farm present undesirable economic aspects eliminating jobs might otherwise held adults iv finally state authority prince massachusetts argues decision exempting amish children state requirement fails recognize substantive right amish child secondary education fails give due regard power state parens patriae extend benefit secondary education children regardless wishes parents taken broadest sweep language prince might read give support state position however confronted prince situation comparable amish revealed record shown severe characterization evils thought legislature legitimately associate child labor even performed company adult later took great care confine prince narrow scope sherbert verner stated hand rejected challenges free exercise clause governmental regulation certain overt acts prompted religious beliefs principles even action accord one religious convictions totally free legislative restrictions braunfeld brown conduct actions regulated invariably posed substantial threat public safety peace order see reynolds jacobson massachusetts prince massachusetts contrary suggestion dissenting opinion justice douglas holding today degree depends assertion religious interest child contrasted parents parents subject prosecution failing cause children attend school right free exercise children must determine wisconsin power impose criminal penalties parent dissent argues child expresses desire attend public high school conflict wishes parents prevented reason consider point since issue case children parties litigation state point tried case theory respondents preventing children attending school expressed desires indeed record contrary state position outset empowered apply law amish parents manner parents without regard wishes child claim reject today holding way determines proper resolution possible competing interests parents children state appropriate state proceeding power state asserted theory amish parents preventing minor children attending high school despite expressed desires contrary recognition claim state proceeding course call question traditional concepts parental control religious education minor children recognized past decisions clear intrusion state family decisions area religious training give rise grave questions religious freedom comparable raised presented pierce society sisters record neither reach decide issues state argument proceeds without reliance actual conflict wishes parents children appears rest potential exemption amish parents requirements law might allow parents act contrary best interests children foreclosing opportunity make intelligent choice amish way life outside world argument course made respect church schools short college nothing record ordinary course human experience suggest parents generally consult children ages placed church school parents faith indeed seems clear state empowered parens patriae save child amish parents requiring additional two years compulsory formal high school education state large measure influence determine religious future child even markedly prince therefore case involves fundamental interest parents contrasted state guide religious future education children history culture western civilization reflect strong tradition parental concern nurture upbringing children primary role parents upbringing children established beyond debate enduring american tradition first perhaps significant statements area found pierce society sisters observed doctrine meyer nebraska think entirely plain act unreasonably interferes liberty parents guardians direct upbringing education children control often heretofore pointed rights guaranteed constitution may abridged legislation reasonable relation purpose within competency state fundamental theory liberty upon governments union repose excludes general power state standardize children forcing accept instruction public teachers child mere creature state nurture direct destiny right coupled high duty recognize prepare additional obligations however read holding pierce stands charter rights parents direct religious children interests parenthood combined free exercise claim nature revealed record merely reasonable relation purpose within competency state required sustain validity state requirement first amendment sure power parent even linked free exercise claim may subject limitation prince appears parental decisions jeopardize health safety child potential significant social burdens case amish introduced persuasive evidence undermining arguments state advanced support claims terms welfare child society whole record strongly indicates accommodating religious objections amish forgoing one two additional years compulsory education impair physical mental health child result inability discharge duties responsibilities citizenship way materially detract welfare society face consistent emphasis central values underlying religion clauses constitutional scheme government accept parens patriae claim scope sweeping potential broad unforeseeable application urged state reasons stated hold wisconsin first fourteenth amendments prevent state compelling respondents cause children attend formal high school age disposition case however way alters recognition obvious fact courts school boards legislatures determine necessity discrete aspects state program compulsory education suggest courts must move great circumspection performing sensitive delicate task weighing state legitimate social concern faced religious claims exemption generally applicable educational requirements overemphasized dealing way life mode education group claiming recently discovered progressive enlightened process rearing children modern life aided history three centuries identifiable religious sect long history successful segment american society amish case convincingly demonstrated sincerity religious beliefs interrelationship belief mode life vital role belief daily conduct play continued survival old order amish communities religious organization hazards presented state enforcement statute generally valid others beyond carried even difficult burden demonstrating adequacy alternative mode continuing informal vocational education terms precisely overall interests state advances support program compulsory high school education light convincing showing one probably religious groups sects make weighing minimal difference state require amish already accept incumbent state show particularity admittedly strong interest compulsory education adversely affected granting exemption amish sherbert verner supra nothing hold intended undermine general applicability state compulsory statutes limit power state promulgate reasonable standards impairing free exercise religion provide continuing agricultural vocational education parental church guidance old order amish others similarly situated long history amicable effective relationships schools basis assuming related context reasonable standards established concerning content continuing vocational education amish children parental guidance provided always state regulations inconsistent said opinion affirmed footnotes stat provides pertinent part compulsory school attendance unless child legal excuse graduated high school person control child ages years shall cause child attend school regularly full period hours religious holidays excepted public private school child enrolled session end school term quarter semester school year becomes years age section apply child proper physical mental condition attend school child exempted good cause school board district child resides child completed full high school course certificate reputable physician general practice shall sufficient proof child unable attend school instruction required period elsewhere school may substituted school attendance instruction must approved state superintendent substantially equivalent instruction given children like ages public private schools children reside whoever violates section may fined less imprisoned months section requires attendance age school district containing vocational technical adult education school section concededly inapplicable case school district involved prior trial attorney respondents wrote state superintendent public instruction effort explore possibilities compromise settlement among possibilities suggested perhaps state superintendent administratively determine amish satisfy law establishing vocational training plan similar one established pennsylvania supp app pennsylvania plan amish children high school age required attend amish vocational school three hours week time taught subjects english mathematics health social studies amish teacher balance week children perform farm household duties parental supervision keep journal daily activities major portion curriculum home projects agriculture homemaking see generally hostetler huntington children amish society socialization community education similar program instituted indiana ibid see also iowa code stat ann supp superintendent rejected proposal ground afford amish children substantially equivalent education offered schools area supp app first amendment provides congress shall make law respecting establishment religion prohibiting free exercise thereof see generally hostetler amish society hostetler huntington children amish society littell sectarian protestantism pursuit wisdom must technological objectives prevail public controls nonpublic schools erickson ed see welsh harlan concurring result ballard see generally butts cremin history education american culture cremin transformation school hostetler supra hostetler huntington supra developed working arrangements amish regarding high school attendance see supra however danger continued existence ancient religious faith ignored simply assumption adherents continue able considerable sacrifice relocate tolerant state country work accommodations threat criminal prosecution forced migration religious minorities evil lay heart religion clauses see everson board education madison memorial remonstrance religious assessments writings james madison hunt ed apparent ground decision several previous state cases rejecting claims exemption similar see state garber cert denied state hershberger ohio app commonwealth beiler super title authorizes secretary health education welfare exempt members recognized religious sect existing times since december obligation pay social security taxes reason tenets sect opposed receipt benefits agree waive provided secretary finds sect makes reasonable provision dependent members history exemption shows enacted situation old order amish specifically view record case establishes without contradiction green county amish never known commit crimes none known receive public assistance none unemployed erickson previously written many public educators elated programs successful preparing students productive community life amish system seems fact public schoolmen strive outlaw amish approach others forced emulate many features erickson showdown amish schoolhouse description analysis iowa controversy public controls nonpublic schools erickson ed see littell supra children involved case graduates eighth grade country defense introduced study hostetler indicating amish children eighth grade achieved comparably children basic skills supp app see generally hostetler huntington supra jefferson recognized education essential welfare liberty people reluctant directly force instruction children opposition parent instead proposed state citizenship conditioned ability read readily tongue native acquired letter thomas jefferson joseph cabell writings thomas jefferson mem ed clear far mass people concerned envisaged basic education three sufficiently meet interests state suggested completion elementary school destined labor engage business agriculture enter apprenticeships handicraft art may choice letter thomas jefferson peter carr thomas jefferson education republic arrowood ed see also see dept interior bureau education bulletin digest state laws relating public education joint hearings senate committee education labor house committee labor pt even today eighth grade education fully satisfies educational requirements least six see rev stat ann ark stat ann iowa code comp laws ann wyo stat ann supp mississippi compulsory education law number flexible provisions permitting children aged completed eighth grade excused school order engage lawful employment rev stat ann stat rev code ann ind ann stat mass laws supp mo rev stat rev stat stat ann eighth grade education satisfied wisconsin formal education requirements see laws laws prior provision made attendance continuation vocational schools working children past eighth grade one maintained community question general discussion early development wisconsin compulsory education child labor laws see ensign compulsory school attendance child labor see joint hearings supra pt statement frances perkins secretary labor pt statement katherine lenroot chief children bureau department labor national child labor committee anniversary report long road abbott child state greenwood reprint cremin transformation school steinhilber sokolowski state law compulsory attendance dept health education welfare stat amended see materials cited supra casad compulsory education individual rights religion public order giannella ed see abbott supra federal fair labor standards act excludes definition ppressive child labor employment child age parent employing child occupation manufacturing mining occupation found secretary labor particularly hazardous employment children ages sixteen eighteen years detrimental health cf jacobson massachusetts wright dewitt school district ark application president directors georgetown college app opinion cert denied relevant testimony record effect wishes one child testified corresponded parents testimony frieda yoder tr effect personal religious beliefs guided decision discontinue school attendance eighth grade children called either side said meet suggestion decision wisconsin recognizing exemption amish state system compulsory education constituted impermissible establishment religion walz tax commission saw three main concerns establishment clause sought protect sponsorship financial support active involvement sovereign religious activity accommodating religious beliefs amish hardly characterized sponsorship active involvement purpose effect exemption support favor advance assist amish allow religious society long advent compulsory education survive free heavy impediment compliance wisconsin law impose accommodation reflects nothing governmental obligation neutrality face religious differences represent involvement religious secular institutions object establishment clause forestall sherbert verner several adopted plans accommodate amish religious beliefs establishment amish vocational school see supra schools traditional sense word previously noted respondents attempted reach compromise state wisconsin patterned pennsylvania plan efforts productive basis assume wisconsin unable reach satisfactory accommodation amish light hold serve interests without impinging respondents protected free exercise religion justice powell justice rehnquist took part consideration decision case justice stewart justice brennan joins concurring case involves constitutionality imposing criminal punishment upon amish parents religiously based refusal compel children attend public high schools wisconsin sought brand parents criminals following religious beliefs today rightly holds wisconsin constitutionally case way involves questions regarding right children amish parents attend public high schools institutions learning wish points suggestion whatever record religious beliefs children concerned differ way parents one children testified last two questions answers accurately sum testimony take frieda reason going school go school since last september religion yes reason yes emphasis supplied justice white justice brennan justice stewart join concurring cases one inevitably call delicate balancing important conflicting interests join opinion judgment say state interest requiring two years compulsory education ninth tenth grades outweighs importance concededly sincere amish religious practice survival sect different case respondent claim religion forbade children attending school time complying way educational standards set state since amish children permitted acquire basic tools literacy survive modern society attending grades one eight since deviation state law relatively slight conclude respondents claim must prevail largely religious freedom freedom believe practice strange may foreign creeds classically one highest values society braunfeld brown brennan concurring dissenting importance state interest asserted denigrated however today education perhaps important function state local governments compulsory school attendance laws great expenditures education demonstrate recognition importance education democratic society required performance basic public responsibilities even service armed forces foundation good citizenship today principal instrument awakening child cultural values preparing later professional training helping adjust normally environment brown board education decision cases administration exemption old order amish state compulsory laws inevitably involve kind close perhaps repeated scrutiny religious practices exemplified today opinion heretofore anxious avoid entanglement create forbidden establishment religion essential implement free exercise values threatened otherwise neutral program instituted foster permissible nonreligious state objective join sincerity amish religious policy uncontested potentially adverse impact state requirement great state valid interest education already largely satisfied eight years children already spent school challenged amish religious practice pose substantial threat public safety peace order analysis free exercise clause substantially different see jacobson massachusetts prince massachusetts cleveland application president directors georgetown college app cert denied question raised concerning power state reasonably regulate schools inspect supervise examine teachers pupils require children proper age attend school teachers shall good moral character patriotic disposition certain studies plainly essential good citizenship must taught nothing taught manifestly inimical public welfare pierce society sisters hostetler testified though gradual increase total number old order amish past years time amish also lost members church turnover rate probably present amish assimilated people app justice heffernan dissenting opined arge numbers young people voluntarily leave amish community year thereafter forced make way world justice douglas dissenting part agree religious scruples amish opposed education children beyond grade schools yet disagree conclusion matter within dispensation parents alone analysis assumes interests stake case amish parents one hand state difficulty approach despite claim parents seeking vindicate free exercise claims also children argued right amish children religious freedom presented facts case issue involves amish parents religious freedom defy state criminal statute imposing upon affirmative duty cause children attend high school first respondents motion dismiss trial expressly asserts religious liberty adults also children defense prosecutions course beyond question parents standing defendants criminal prosecution assert religious interests children defense although lower courts majority assume identity interest parent child clear treated religious interest child factor analysis second essential reach question decide case question squarely raised motion dismiss also analysis claims take place vacuum parents case allowed religious exemption inevitable effect impose parents notions religious duty upon children child mature enough express potentially conflicting desires invasion child rights permit imposition without canvassing views prince massachusetts imposition resulting litigation child effective forum litigation rights considered amish child desires attend high school mature enough desire respected state may well able override parents religiously motivated objections religion individual experience necessary even appropriate every amish child express views subject prosecution single adult crucial however views child whose parent subject suit frieda yoder fact testified religious views opposed education therefore join judgment respondent jonas yoder frieda yoder views may vernon yutzy barbara miller must dissent therefore respondents adin yutzy wallace miller motion dismiss also raised question children religious liberty ii issue never squarely presented today opinions full talk power parents child education see pierce society sisters meyer nebraska past analyzed similar conflicts parent state little regard views child see prince massachusetts supra recent cases however clearly held children constitutionally protectible interests children persons within meaning bill rights held haley ohio extended protection fourteenth amendment state trial boy gault held neither fourteenth amendment bill rights adults alone winship held boy charged act crime committed adult entitled procedural safeguards contained sixth amendment tinker des moines school district dealt students wore armbands public schools disciplined gave relief saying first amendment rights abridged students school well school persons constitution possessed fundamental rights state must respect must respect obligations state educating young citizenship reason scrupulous protection constitutional freedoms individual strangle free mind source teach youth discount important principles government mere platitudes future student future parents imperiled today decision parent keeps child school beyond grade school child forever barred entry new amazing world diversity today child may decide preferred course may rebel student judgment parents essential give full meaning said bill rights right students masters destiny harnessed amish way life authority education truncated entire life may stunted deformed child therefore given opportunity heard state gives exemption honor today views two children question canvassed wisconsin courts matter explicitly reserved new hearings held remand case iii think emphasis law order record amish group people quite irrelevant religion religion irrespective misdemeanor felony records members might sure catholics episcopalians baptists jehovah witnesses unitarians presbyterians make subjected test course true group society organized perpetuate crime motive rather startling problems akin raised years back particular sect challenged operating fraudulent basis ballard factors present amish whether high low criminal record certainly qualify historic standards religion within meaning first amendment rightly rejects notion actions even though religiously grounded always outside protection free exercise clause first amendment ruling departs teaching reynolds said concerning reach free exercise clause first amendment congress deprived legislative power mere opinion left free reach actions violation social duties subversive good order case conceded polygamy part religion mormons yet said matters belief polygamy part professed religion still belief belief action deemed antisocial punished even though grounded deeply held sincere religious convictions today least respect opens way give organized religion broader base ever enjoyed even promises time reynolds overruled another way however retreats reference henry thoreau says choice philosophical personal rather religious belief rise demands religion clauses contrary held seeger concerned meaning words religious training belief selective service act basis many conscientious objector claims said within phrase come sincere religious beliefs based upon power upon faith else subordinate upon else ultimately dependent test might stated words sincere meaningful belief occupies life possessor place parallel filled god admittedly qualifying exemption comes within statutory definition construction avoids imputing congress intent classify different religious beliefs exempting excluding others accord congressional policy equal treatment whose opposition service grounded religious tenets case welsh conscientious objection war undeniably based part perception world politics letter local board wrote act according see see military complex wastes human material resources fosters disregard consider paramount concern human needs ends see means employ defend way life profoundly change way life see failure recognize political social economic realities world nation fail responsibility nation believe human life valuable living therefore injure kill another human belief corresponding duty abstain violence toward another person superior arising human relation contrary essential every human relation therefore conscientiously comply government insistence assume duties feel immoral totally repugnant thus prince massachusetts jehovah witness convicted violated state child labor law allowing niece ward circulate religious literature public streets narrow question religious liberty adult analyzed problem point view state conflicting interest welfare child justice brennan speaking recently pointed prince implicitly held custodian standing assert alleged freedom religion rights child threatened litigation child effective way asserting eisenstadt baird prince children effective alternate means vindicate rights question therefore squarely us significant number amish children leave old order professor hostetler notes loss members limited amish districts considerable others hostetler amish society one pennsylvania church observed defection rate ibid rates reported others casad compulsory high school attendance old order amish commentary state garber rev brushed aside students interests offhand comment hen child reaches age judgment choose religion nothing record indicate moral intellectual judgment demanded student question case beyond capacity children far younger involved regularly permitted testify custody proceedings indeed failure call affected child custody hearing often reversible error see callicott callicott civ app tex reversible error trial judge refuse hear testimony custody battle moreover substantial agreement among child psychologists sociologists moral intellectual maturity approaches adult see piaget moral judgment child elkind children adolescents kohlberg moral education schools developmental view muuss adolescent behavior society kay moral development gesell ilg youth years ten sixteen maturity amish youth identify assume adult roles early childhood see goodman culture childhood certainly less children general population canvassing views amish children state wisconsin present insurmountable difficulties survey indicated time children entire state comment rev observation justice heffernan dissenting principal opinion portrayed amish leading life idyllic agrarianism equally applicable majority opinion observation portrayal rests mythological basis professor hostetler noted rinking among youth common large amish settlements amish society moreover appear among amish rate suicide high higher nation also notes unfortunate amish preoccupation filthy stories well significant rowdyism stress traits peculiar amish course point amish people set apart different