california
acevedo
argued
january
decided
may
police
observed
respondent
acevedo
leave
apartment
known
contain
marijuana
brown
paper
bag
size
marijuana
packages
seen
earlier
placed
bag
car
trunk
drove
away
stopped
car
opened
trunk
bag
found
marijuana
acevedo
motion
suppress
marijuana
denied
pleaded
guilty
possession
marijuana
sale
california
appeal
held
marijuana
suppressed
finding
officers
probable
cause
believe
bag
contained
drugs
lacked
probable
cause
suspect
car
otherwise
contained
contraband
concluded
case
controlled
chadwick
held
police
seize
movable
luggage
closed
containers
open
without
warrant
since
inter
alia
person
heightened
privacy
expectation
containers
held
police
search
extending
container
within
automobile
may
search
container
without
warrant
probable
cause
believe
holds
contraband
evidence
carroll
held
warrantless
search
automobile
based
upon
probable
cause
believe
vehicle
contained
evidence
crime
light
exigency
arising
vehicle
likely
disappearance
contravene
fourth
amendment
warrant
clause
provides
one
rule
govern
automobile
searches
pp
separate
doctrines
permitted
warrantless
search
automobile
include
search
closed
containers
found
inside
car
probable
cause
search
vehicle
ross
prohibited
warrantless
search
closed
container
located
moving
vehicle
probable
cause
search
container
arkansas
sanders
pp
doctrine
stare
decisis
preclude
eliminating
warrant
requirement
sanders
specifically
undermined
ross
rule
affords
minimal
protection
privacy
interests
police
knowing
may
open
bag
searching
entire
car
may
search
extensively
otherwise
order
establish
probable
cause
ross
requires
cf
johns
may
seize
container
hold
obtain
search
warrant
search
without
warrant
search
incident
lawful
arrest
moreover
search
paper
bag
intrudes
far
less
individual
privacy
incursion
sanctioned
carroll
prohibition
agents
slashed
car
upholstery
rule
also
antithesis
clear
unequivocal
guideline
thus
confused
courts
police
officers
impeded
effective
law
enforcement
place
oklahoma
castleberry
distinguished
pp
holding
neither
extends
carroll
doctrine
broadens
scope
permissible
automobile
searches
instant
case
probable
cause
police
believe
bag
car
trunk
contained
marijuana
allows
warrantless
search
bag
record
reveals
probable
cause
search
entire
vehicle
blackmun
delivered
opinion
rehnquist
kennedy
souter
joined
scalia
filed
opinion
concurring
judgment
post
white
filed
dissenting
opinion
post
stevens
filed
dissenting
opinion
marshall
joined
post
robert
foster
supervising
deputy
attorney
general
california
argued
cause
petitioner
briefs
john
van
de
kamp
attorney
general
richard
iglehart
chief
assistant
attorney
general
harley
mayfield
senior
assistant
attorney
general
frederick
millar
supervising
deputy
attorney
general
frederick
westcott
anderson
argued
cause
respondent
brief
jan
walls
anderson
justice
blackmun
delivered
opinion
case
requires
us
consider
automobile
exception
warrant
requirement
fourth
amendment
application
search
closed
container
trunk
car
october
officer
coleman
santa
ana
police
department
received
telephone
call
federal
drug
enforcement
agent
hawaii
agent
informed
coleman
seized
package
containing
marijuana
delivered
federal
express
office
santa
ana
addressed
daza
west
stevens
avenue
city
agent
arranged
send
package
coleman
instead
coleman
take
package
federal
express
office
arrest
person
arrived
claim
coleman
received
package
october
verified
contents
took
senior
operations
manager
federal
express
office
october
man
identified
jamie
daza
arrived
claim
package
accepted
drove
apartment
west
stevens
carried
package
apartment
officers
observed
daza
leave
apartment
drop
box
paper
contained
marijuana
trash
bin
coleman
point
left
scene
get
search
warrant
officers
saw
richard
george
leave
apartment
carrying
blue
knapsack
appeared
half
full
officers
stopped
driving
searched
knapsack
found
pounds
marijuana
respondent
charles
steven
acevedo
arrived
entered
daza
apartment
stayed
minutes
reappeared
carrying
brown
paper
bag
looked
full
officers
noticed
bag
size
one
wrapped
marijuana
packages
sent
hawaii
acevedo
walked
silver
honda
parking
lot
placed
bag
trunk
car
started
drive
away
fearing
loss
evidence
officers
marked
police
car
stopped
opened
trunk
bag
found
marijuana
respondent
charged
state
possession
marijuana
sale
violation
cal
health
safety
code
ann
west
supp
app
moved
suppress
marijuana
found
car
motion
denied
pleaded
guilty
appealed
denial
suppression
motion
california
appeal
fourth
district
concluded
marijuana
found
paper
bag
car
trunk
suppressed
cal
app
cal
rptr
concluded
officers
probable
cause
believe
paper
bag
contained
drugs
lacked
probable
cause
suspect
acevedo
car
otherwise
contained
contraband
officers
probable
cause
directed
specifically
bag
held
case
controlled
chadwick
rather
ross
although
agreed
officers
seize
paper
bag
held
chadwick
open
bag
without
first
obtaining
warrant
purpose
recognized
anomalous
nature
dichotomy
rule
chadwick
rule
ross
cal
app
cal
rptr
dichotomy
dictates
probable
cause
search
car
entire
car
including
closed
container
found
therein
may
searched
without
warrant
probable
cause
container
car
container
may
held
searched
warrant
obtained
california
denied
state
petition
review
app
pet
cert
may
justice
stayed
enforcement
appeal
judgment
pending
disposition
state
petition
certiorari
petition
granted
issuance
mandate
granted
certiorari
reexamine
law
applicable
closed
container
automobile
subject
troubled
courts
law
enforcement
officers
since
first
considered
chadwick
ii
fourth
amendment
protects
right
people
secure
persons
houses
papers
effects
unreasonable
searches
seizures
contemporaneously
adoption
fourth
amendment
first
congress
later
second
fourth
congresses
distinguished
need
warrant
search
contraband
concealed
dwelling
house
similar
place
need
warrant
search
contraband
concealed
movable
vessel
see
carroll
see
also
boyd
carroll
established
exception
warrant
requirement
moving
vehicles
recognized
necessary
difference
search
store
dwelling
house
structure
respect
proper
official
warrant
readily
may
obtained
search
ship
motor
boat
wagon
automobile
contraband
goods
practicable
secure
warrant
vehicle
quickly
moved
locality
jurisdiction
warrant
must
sought
refined
exigency
requirement
chambers
maroney
held
existence
exigent
circumstances
determined
time
automobile
seized
car
search
issue
chambers
took
place
police
station
vehicle
immobilized
time
driver
arrested
given
probable
cause
exigent
circumstances
time
vehicle
first
stopped
held
later
warrantless
search
station
passed
constitutional
muster
validity
later
search
derived
ruling
carroll
immediate
search
without
warrant
moment
seizure
permissible
see
chambers
reasoned
chambers
police
search
later
whenever
searched
earlier
chosen
following
chambers
police
probable
cause
justify
warrantless
seizure
automobile
public
roadway
may
conduct
either
immediate
delayed
search
vehicle
ross
decided
held
warrantless
search
automobile
carroll
doctrine
include
search
container
package
found
inside
car
search
supported
probable
cause
warrantless
search
ross
car
occurred
informant
told
police
seen
ross
complete
drug
transaction
using
drugs
stored
trunk
car
police
stopped
car
searched
discovered
trunk
brown
paper
bag
containing
drugs
decided
search
ross
car
unreasonable
fourth
amendment
scope
warrantless
search
based
probable
cause
narrower
broader
scope
search
authorized
warrant
supported
probable
cause
thus
probable
cause
justifies
search
lawfully
stopped
vehicle
justifies
search
every
part
vehicle
contents
may
conceal
object
search
ross
therefore
clarified
scope
carroll
doctrine
properly
including
probing
search
compartments
containers
within
automobile
long
search
supported
probable
cause
addition
clarification
ross
distinguished
carroll
doctrine
separate
rule
governed
search
closed
containers
see
announced
separate
rule
unique
luggage
closed
packages
bags
containers
chadwick
chadwick
federal
narcotics
agents
probable
cause
believe
footlocker
contained
marijuana
agents
tracked
locker
defendants
removed
train
carried
station
waiting
car
soon
defendants
lifted
locker
trunk
car
agents
arrested
seized
locker
searched
contend
locker
brief
contact
automobile
trunk
sufficed
make
carroll
doctrine
applicable
rather
urged
search
movable
luggage
considered
analogous
search
automobile
rejected
argument
reasoned
person
expects
privacy
luggage
personal
effects
automobile
moreover
concluded
may
often
case
automobiles
seized
secure
storage
facilities
usually
available
police
seize
luggage
arkansas
sanders
extended
chadwick
rule
apply
suitcase
actually
transported
trunk
car
sanders
police
probable
cause
believe
suitcase
contained
marijuana
watched
defendant
placed
suitcase
trunk
taxi
driven
away
police
pursued
taxi
several
blocks
stopped
found
suitcase
trunk
searched
although
applied
carroll
doctrine
searches
integral
parts
automobile
indeed
carroll
contraband
whiskey
upholstery
seats
see
extend
doctrine
warrantless
search
personal
luggage
merely
located
automobile
lawfully
stopped
police
sanders
majority
stressed
heightened
privacy
expectation
personal
luggage
concluded
presence
luggage
automobile
diminish
owner
expectation
privacy
personal
items
cf
california
carney
ross
endeavored
distinguish
carroll
governed
ross
automobile
search
chadwick
governed
sanders
automobile
search
held
carroll
doctrine
covered
searches
automobiles
police
probable
cause
search
entire
vehicle
chadwick
doctrine
governed
searches
luggage
officers
probable
cause
search
container
within
vehicle
thus
ross
situation
police
conduct
reasonable
search
fourth
amendment
without
obtaining
warrant
whereas
sanders
situation
police
obtain
warrant
searched
justice
stevens
correct
course
ross
involved
scope
automobile
search
see
post
ross
held
closed
containers
encountered
police
warrantless
search
car
pursuant
automobile
exception
also
searched
thus
ross
took
critical
step
saying
closed
containers
cars
searched
without
warrant
presence
within
automobile
despite
protection
sanders
purported
extend
closed
containers
privacy
interest
closed
containers
yielded
broad
scope
automobile
search
iii
facts
case
closely
resemble
facts
ross
ross
police
probable
cause
believe
drugs
stored
trunk
particular
car
see
california
appeal
concluded
police
probable
cause
believe
respondent
carrying
marijuana
bag
car
trunk
cal
app
cal
rptr
furthermore
worth
ross
drugs
trunk
contained
brown
paper
bag
ross
rejected
chadwick
distinction
containers
cars
concluded
expectation
privacy
one
vehicle
equal
one
expectation
privacy
container
noted
privacy
interests
car
trunk
glove
compartment
may
less
movable
container
also
recognized
arguable
exigent
circumstances
permit
warrantless
search
automobile
justify
warrantless
search
movable
container
deference
rule
chadwick
sanders
however
put
question
one
side
concluded
time
expense
warrant
process
misdirected
police
search
every
cubic
inch
automobile
discovered
paper
sack
point
fourth
amendment
required
take
sack
magistrate
permission
look
inside
must
decide
question
deferred
ross
whether
fourth
amendment
requires
police
obtain
warrant
open
sack
movable
vehicle
simply
lack
probable
cause
search
entire
car
conclude
iv
dissenters
ross
asked
suitcase
sanders
private
less
difficult
police
seize
store
relevant
respect
properly
subject
warrant
requirement
container
police
discover
probable
cause
search
entire
automobile
id
agree
container
found
general
search
automobile
container
found
car
limited
search
container
equally
easy
police
store
suspect
hide
destroy
fact
see
principled
distinction
terms
either
privacy
expectation
exigent
circumstances
paper
bag
found
police
ross
paper
bag
found
police
furthermore
attempting
distinguish
container
police
specifically
searching
container
come
across
car
provided
minimal
protection
privacy
impeded
effective
law
enforcement
line
probable
cause
search
vehicle
probable
cause
search
package
vehicle
always
clear
separate
rules
govern
two
objects
searched
may
enable
police
broaden
power
make
warrantless
searches
disserve
privacy
interests
noted
ross
context
search
entire
vehicle
recognizing
carroll
entire
vehicle
searched
without
warrant
concluded
prohibiting
police
opening
immediately
container
object
search
likely
found
instead
forcing
first
comb
entire
vehicle
actually
exacerbate
intrusion
privacy
interests
moment
officers
stop
automobile
may
less
clear
whether
suspect
high
degree
certainty
vehicle
contains
drugs
bag
simply
contains
drugs
police
know
may
open
bag
actually
searching
entire
car
may
search
extensively
otherwise
order
establish
general
probable
cause
required
ross
situation
johns
customs
agents
saw
two
trucks
drive
private
airstrip
approach
two
small
planes
agents
drew
near
trucks
smelled
marijuana
saw
backs
trucks
packages
wrapped
manner
marijuana
smugglers
customarily
employed
agents
took
trucks
headquarters
searched
packages
without
warrant
relying
chadwick
defendants
argued
search
unlawful
defendants
contended
ross
inapplicable
agents
lacked
probable
cause
search
anything
packages
supported
contention
noting
search
entire
vehicle
never
occurred
rejected
argument
found
chadwick
sanders
inapposite
agents
probable
cause
search
entire
body
truck
although
chosen
see
benefit
rule
requires
law
enforcement
officers
conduct
intrusive
search
order
justify
less
intrusive
one
extent
rule
protects
privacy
protection
minimal
law
enforcement
officers
may
seize
container
hold
obtain
search
warrant
chadwick
since
police
hypothesis
probable
cause
seize
property
assume
warrant
routinely
forthcoming
overwhelming
majority
cases
sanders
dissenting
opinion
police
often
able
search
containers
without
warrant
despite
rule
search
incident
lawful
arrest
new
york
belton
said
hold
policeman
made
lawful
custodial
arrest
occupant
automobile
may
contemporaneous
incident
arrest
search
passenger
compartment
automobile
follows
conclusion
police
may
also
examine
contents
containers
found
within
passenger
compartment
omitted
finally
search
paper
bag
intrudes
far
less
individual
privacy
incursion
sanctioned
long
ago
carroll
case
prohibition
agents
slashed
upholstery
automobile
nonetheless
found
search
reasonable
fourth
amendment
destroying
interior
automobile
unreasonable
conclude
looking
inside
closed
container
light
minimal
protection
privacy
afforded
rule
serious
doubt
whether
rule
substantially
serves
privacy
interests
hold
fourth
amendment
compel
separate
treatment
automobile
search
extends
container
within
vehicle
rule
failed
protect
privacy
also
confused
courts
police
officers
impeded
effective
law
enforcement
conflict
carroll
doctrine
cases
line
criticized
academic
commentary
see
gardner
searches
seizures
automobiles
contents
fourth
amendment
considerations
world
neb
rev
latzer
searching
cars
contents
ross
crim
bull
kamisar
automobile
search
cases
little
clarify
labyrinth
judicial
uncertainty
trends
developments
opperman
ed
one
leading
authority
fourth
amendment
comparing
chadwick
sanders
carroll
progeny
observed
two
lines
authority
completely
reconciled
thus
one
comes
situation
depends
upon
line
authority
used
point
departure
lafave
search
seizure
ed
discrepancy
two
rules
led
confusion
law
enforcement
officers
example
officer
developed
probable
cause
believe
vehicle
contains
drugs
begins
search
vehicle
immediately
discovers
closed
container
rule
applies
defendant
argue
fact
officer
first
chose
search
container
indicates
probable
cause
extended
container
chadwick
sanders
therefore
require
warrant
hand
fact
officer
first
chose
search
obvious
location
restrict
propriety
search
chadwick
rule
applied
sanders
devolved
anomaly
likely
police
discover
drugs
container
less
authority
search
noted
virtue
providing
clear
unequivocal
guidelines
law
enforcement
profession
minnick
mississippi
quoting
arizona
roberson
rule
antithesis
clear
unequivocal
guideline
justice
stevens
argues
decisions
evince
lack
confusion
automobile
exception
see
post
first
case
cited
dissent
place
however
involve
automobile
considered
place
temporary
detention
luggage
airport
automobile
involved
defendant
place
waiting
airport
board
plane
rather
preparing
leave
airport
car
similarity
sanders
defendant
leaving
airport
car
remote
best
place
nothing
automobile
exception
inapposite
justice
stevens
citation
oklahoma
castleberry
support
contention
castleberry
presented
question
application
automobile
exception
search
closed
container
face
castleberry
affirmed
equally
divided
result
illustrates
continued
struggle
scope
automobile
exception
rather
absence
confusion
applying
justice
stevens
also
argues
law
enforcement
impeded
decided
fourth
amendment
cases
since
ross
favor
government
see
post
cases
government
appeared
petitioner
dissent
fails
explain
loss
cases
mention
many
others
hear
interfere
law
enforcement
fact
state
courts
federal
courts
appeals
reversed
fourth
amendment
holdings
times
since
demonstrates
extent
fourth
amendment
jurisprudence
confused
courts
important
exception
johns
texas
brown
fourth
amendment
cases
cited
dissent
concern
automobiles
automobile
exception
carroll
ross
explained
automobile
searches
differ
searches
dissent
fails
acknowledge
basic
principle
misconstrues
misapplies
fourth
amendment
case
law
chadwick
dissenters
predicted
container
rule
perverse
result
allowing
fortuitous
circumstances
control
outcome
various
searches
rule
also
confusing
within
two
years
chadwick
found
necessary
expound
meaning
decision
explain
application
luggage
general
sanders
dissenters
bemoaned
inherent
opaqueness
difference
carroll
chadwick
principles
noted
confusion
created
concerned
see
also
robbins
california
listing
cases
decided
federal
courts
appeals
since
chadwick
announced
three
years
sanders
returned
ross
troubled
area
order
assert
sanders
cut
back
carroll
although
recognized
firmly
doctrine
stare
decisis
serves
profoundly
important
purposes
legal
system
overruled
prior
case
comparatively
rare
occasion
bred
confusion
derelict
led
anomalous
results
see
complete
auto
transit
brady
sanders
explicitly
undermined
ross
existence
dual
regimes
automobile
searches
uncover
containers
proved
confusing
chadwick
sanders
dissenters
predicted
conclude
better
adopt
one
rule
govern
automobile
searches
eliminate
warrant
requirement
closed
containers
set
forth
sanders
vi
interpretation
carroll
doctrine
set
forth
ross
applies
searches
containers
found
automobile
words
police
may
search
without
warrant
search
supported
probable
cause
ross
put
way
scope
warrantless
search
automobile
defined
nature
container
contraband
secreted
rather
defined
object
search
places
probable
cause
believe
may
found
holding
today
neither
extends
carroll
doctrine
broadens
scope
permissible
automobile
search
delineated
carroll
chambers
ross
remains
cardinal
principle
searches
conducted
outside
judicial
process
without
prior
approval
judge
magistrate
per
se
unreasonable
fourth
amendment
subject
specifically
established
exceptions
mincey
arizona
quoting
katz
omitted
held
ross
exception
recognized
carroll
unquestionably
one
specifically
established
well
delineated
today
drawn
curious
line
search
automobile
coincidentally
turns
container
search
container
coincidentally
turns
automobile
protections
fourth
amendment
must
turn
coincidences
therefore
interpret
carroll
providing
one
rule
govern
automobile
searches
police
may
search
automobile
containers
within
probable
cause
believe
contraband
evidence
contained
judgment
california
appeal
reversed
case
remanded
proceedings
inconsistent
opinion
ordered
footnotes
although
respondent
challenges
holding
decline
california
courts
found
probable
cause
respondent
raise
probable
cause
question
brief
opposition
resolution
issue
also
raise
point
california
therefore
consider
issue
see
lytle
household
heckler
campbell
justice
scalia
concurring
judgment
agree
dissent
anomalous
briefcase
protected
general
requirement
prior
warrant
carried
along
street
briefcase
become
unprotected
soon
carried
automobile
hand
agree
anomalous
locked
compartment
automobile
unprotected
general
requirement
prior
warrant
unlocked
briefcase
within
automobile
protected
join
judgment
think
holding
faithful
text
tradition
fourth
amendment
anomalies
jurisprudence
ever
eliminated
direction
travel
fourth
amendment
terms
require
prior
warrant
searches
seizures
merely
prohibits
searches
seizures
unreasonable
explicitly
regarding
warrants
way
limitation
upon
issuance
rather
requirement
use
see
wakely
hart
binney
warrant
means
insulating
officials
personal
liability
assessed
colonial
juries
officer
searched
seized
without
warrant
risk
liable
trespass
including
exemplary
damages
unless
jury
found
action
reasonable
amar
bill
rights
constitution
yale
huckle
money
wils
eng
however
officer
acted
pursuant
proper
warrant
absolutely
immune
see
bell
clapp
johns
blackstone
commentaries
restricting
issuance
warrants
framers
endeavored
preserve
jury
role
regulating
searches
seizures
amar
supra
posner
rethinking
fourth
amendment
rev
see
also
taylor
two
studies
constitutional
interpretation
although
fourth
amendment
explicitly
impose
requirement
warrant
course
textually
possible
consider
implicit
within
requirement
reasonableness
years
still
continuing
explosion
fourth
amendment
litigation
followed
announcement
exclusionary
rule
weeks
jurisprudence
lurched
back
forth
imposing
categorical
warrant
requirement
looking
reasonableness
alone
opinions
preferring
warrant
involved
searches
structures
compare
harris
johnson
compare
trupiano
rabinowitz
see
generally
chimel
california
late
preference
warrant
least
rhetorically
see
chimel
coolidge
new
hampshire
victory
illusory
even
today
decision
warrant
requirement
become
riddled
exceptions
basically
unrecognizable
one
commentator
cataloged
nearly
exceptions
including
searches
incident
arrest
automobile
searches
border
searches
administrative
searches
regulated
businesses
exigent
circumstances
search
es
incident
nonarrest
probable
cause
arrest
boat
boarding
document
checks
welfare
searches
inventory
searches
airport
searches
school
search
es
bradley
two
models
fourth
amendment
footnotes
omitted
since
added
least
two
california
carney
searches
mobile
homes
ortega
searches
offices
government
employees
intricate
body
law
regarding
reasonable
expectation
privacy
developed
largely
means
creating
exceptions
enabling
search
denominated
fourth
amendment
search
therefore
subject
general
warrant
requirement
cf
scalia
concurring
judgment
unlike
dissent
therefore
regard
today
holding
momentous
departure
rather
merely
continuation
inconsistent
jurisprudence
us
years
cases
like
chadwick
arkansas
sanders
taken
preference
warrant
seriously
cases
like
ross
carroll
clarity
area
unless
make
minds
unless
principles
express
comport
actions
take
view
path
confusion
sought
returning
first
principle
reasonableness
requirement
fourth
amendment
affords
protection
common
law
afforded
see
county
riverside
mclaughlin
ante
scalia
dissenting
people
chiagles
cardozo
cf
california
hodari
difficulty
proposition
includes
requirement
warrant
common
law
required
warrant
may
even
changes
surrounding
legal
rules
example
elimination
common
law
rule
reasonable
good
faith
belief
defense
absolute
liability
trespass
little
barreme
cranch
marshall
see
generally
amar
sovereignty
federalism
yale
may
make
warrant
indispensable
reasonableness
supposed
general
rule
warrant
always
required
appear
basis
common
law
see
carroll
supra
gelston
hoyt
wheat
story
wakely
supra
confuses
rather
facilitates
attempt
develop
rules
reasonableness
light
changed
legal
circumstances
anomaly
eliminated
anomaly
created
today
holding
demonstrate
anomalies
still
precedents
common
law
person
may
arrested
outside
home
basis
probable
cause
without
arrest
warrant
watson
rohan
sawin
mass
upon
arrest
person
well
area
within
grasp
may
searched
evidence
related
crime
chimel
california
supra
people
chiagles
supra
collecting
authority
principles
known
drug
dealer
carrying
briefcase
reasonably
believed
contain
marijuana
unauthorized
possession
crime
police
may
arrest
search
person
basis
probable
cause
alone
precedents
upon
arrival
station
house
police
may
inventory
possessions
including
briefcase
even
reason
suspect
contain
contraband
illinois
lafayette
according
current
law
however
police
may
basis
probable
cause
take
less
intrusive
step
stopping
individual
street
demanding
see
contents
briefcase
makes
sense
priori
absence
common
law
tradition
supporting
distinction
see
reason
continue
justice
white
dissenting
agreeing
justice
stevens
opinion
result
reaches
dissent
affirm
judgment
justice
stevens
justice
marshall
joins
dissenting
end
opinion
pays
lip
service
proposition
provide
basis
correct
analysis
legal
question
presented
case
cardinal
principle
searches
conducted
outside
judicial
process
without
prior
approval
judge
magistrate
per
se
unreasonable
fourth
amendment
subject
specifically
established
exceptions
mincey
arizona
quoting
katz
omitted
ante
relying
arguments
conservative
judges
repeatedly
rejected
past
cases
today
despite
disclaimer
contrary
ibid
enlarges
scope
automobile
exception
cardinal
principle
undergirded
fourth
amendment
jurisprudence
prior
retirement
author
landmark
opinion
chadwick
preface
response
arguments
appropriate
restate
basis
warrant
requirement
significance
chadwick
case
reasons
limitations
automobile
exception
articulated
ross
represent
fair
accommodation
basic
rule
requiring
prior
judicial
approval
searches
automobile
exception
fourth
amendment
restraint
executive
power
amendment
constitutes
framers
direct
constitutional
response
unreasonable
law
enforcement
practices
employed
agents
british
crown
see
weeks
boyd
lafave
search
seizure
ed
years
particularly
period
immediately
world
war
ii
particularly
opinions
authored
justice
jackson
service
special
prosecutor
nuremburg
trials
recognized
importance
restraint
bulwark
police
practices
prevail
totalitarian
regimes
see
di
johnson
history
however
part
explanation
warrant
requirement
requirement
also
reflects
sound
policy
judgment
absent
exceptional
circumstances
decision
invade
privacy
individual
personal
effects
made
neutral
magistrate
rather
agent
executive
opinion
johnson
justice
jackson
explained
point
fourth
amendment
often
grasped
zealous
officers
denies
law
enforcement
support
usual
inferences
reasonable
men
draw
evidence
protection
consists
requiring
inferences
drawn
neutral
detached
magistrate
instead
judged
officer
engaged
often
competitive
enterprise
ferreting
crime
concluding
paragraph
opinion
chadwick
chief
justice
burger
made
point
way
even
though
record
issuance
warrant
judicial
officer
reasonably
predictable
line
must
drawn
view
exigency
shown
support
need
immediate
search
warrant
clause
places
line
point
property
searched
comes
exclusive
dominion
police
authority
respondents
therefore
entitled
protection
warrant
clause
evaluation
neutral
magistrate
privacy
interests
contents
luggage
invaded
concluded
neither
justifications
automobile
exception
support
similar
exception
luggage
first
held
privacy
interest
luggage
substantially
greater
automobile
unlike
automobiles
contents
reasoned
uggage
contents
open
public
view
except
condition
border
entry
common
carrier
travel
luggage
subject
regular
inspections
official
scrutiny
continuing
basis
ibid
indeed
luggage
specifically
intended
safeguard
privacy
personal
effects
unlike
automobile
whose
primary
function
transportation
ibid
held
mobility
luggage
justify
creating
additional
exception
warrant
clause
unlike
automobile
luggage
easily
seized
detained
pending
judicial
approval
search
police
luggage
exclusive
control
slightest
danger
luggage
contents
removed
valid
search
warrant
obtained
luggage
safely
immobilized
unreasonable
undertake
additional
greater
intrusion
search
without
warrant
omitted
ibid
two
terms
chadwick
decided
case
relevant
facts
identical
today
arkansas
sanders
police
probable
cause
search
green
suitcase
placed
trunk
taxicab
little
rock
airport
several
blocks
airport
stopped
cab
arrested
passengers
seized
suitcase
without
obtaining
warrant
opened
searched
arkansas
held
search
unconstitutional
relying
chadwick
state
difficulty
concluding
nothing
set
circumstances
lend
credence
assertion
impracticability
obtaining
search
warrant
sanders
state
ark
dissent
justice
blackmun
rehnquist
also
dissented
chadwick
affirmed
opinion
justice
powell
noted
seizure
green
suitcase
entirely
proper
state
nevertheless
burden
justifying
warrantless
search
failed
carry
burden
demonstrating
need
warrantless
searches
luggage
properly
taken
automobiles
chief
justice
burger
wrote
separately
identify
distinction
cases
police
probable
cause
believe
contraband
located
somewhere
vehicle
typical
automobile
exception
case
cases
like
chadwick
sanders
probable
cause
search
particular
container
placed
car
wrote
police
officers
probable
cause
believe
respondent
green
suitcase
contained
marihuana
placed
trunk
taxicab
duty
obtain
search
warrant
opening
clear
chadwick
essence
holding
chadwick
legitimate
expectation
privacy
contents
trunk
suitcase
accompanying
carried
person
expectation
privacy
diminished
simply
owner
arrest
occurs
public
place
whether
arrested
hotel
lobby
airport
railroad
terminal
public
street
owner
right
expect
contents
luggage
without
consent
exposed
demand
police
breadth
opinion
repeated
references
automobile
respondent
suitcase
seized
time
arrest
however
might
lead
reader
believe
dissenters
apparently
case
involves
automobile
exception
warrant
requirement
see
ante
chadwick
luggage
transported
respondent
time
arrest
automobile
carried
suspected
locus
contraband
opinion
concurring
judgment
held
ross
scope
warrantless
search
authorized
automobile
exception
broader
narrower
magistrate
legitimately
authorize
warrant
see
inherent
mobility
vehicle
justified
immediate
search
without
warrant
affect
scope
search
see
thus
search
encompass
containers
might
might
conceal
object
search
well
remainder
vehicle
see
conclusion
supported
prior
cases
defining
proper
scope
searches
authorized
warrant
well
cases
involving
automobile
exception
also
practical
considerations
apply
searches
police
generalized
probable
cause
believe
contraband
somewhere
vehicle
explained
instances
prohibiting
police
opening
immediately
container
object
search
likely
found
instead
forcing
first
comb
entire
vehicle
actually
exacerbate
intrusion
privacy
interests
indeed
police
never
certain
contraband
secreted
yet
undiscovered
portion
vehicle
likely
result
vehicle
need
secured
warrant
obtained
ibid
concerns
justified
holding
ross
implicated
cases
like
chadwick
sanders
police
probable
cause
search
particular
container
rather
entire
vehicle
police
seize
container
object
search
need
either
search
seize
entire
vehicle
indeed
even
today
recognizes
authority
see
ante
reaching
conclusion
ross
therefore
retreat
holding
either
chadwick
sanders
instead
expressly
endorsed
reasoning
chief
justice
burger
separate
opinion
sanders
explained
repeatedly
ross
involved
scope
warrantless
search
authorized
automobile
exception
unlike
chadwick
sanders
involve
applicability
exception
closed
containers
thus
recognized
ross
chadwick
sanders
created
special
rule
container
searches
rather
merely
applied
cardinal
principle
warrantless
searches
per
se
unreasonable
unless
justified
exception
general
rule
see
ross
dealt
scope
automobile
exception
chadwick
sanders
cases
exception
simply
apply
ii
opinion
today
recognizes
police
probable
cause
search
respondent
vehicle
search
anything
paper
bag
respondent
carried
daza
apartment
placed
trunk
car
unconstitutional
ante
moreover
read
opinion
assumes
police
made
warrantless
inspection
bag
placed
car
see
ibid
finally
also
question
fact
prior
cases
lawful
police
seize
container
detain
respondent
obtained
search
warrant
ante
thus
relevant
facts
governed
decisions
chadwick
sanders
present
whereas
relevant
fact
justified
vehicle
search
ross
present
attempt
identify
exigent
circumstances
justify
refusal
apply
general
rule
warrantless
searches
instead
advances
three
arguments
first
rules
identified
foregoing
cases
confusing
anomalous
ante
second
rules
protect
significant
interest
privacy
ante
third
rules
impede
effective
law
enforcement
ante
none
arguments
withstands
scrutiny
confusion
nine
years
since
ross
decided
considered
three
cases
police
probable
cause
search
particular
container
one
probable
cause
search
two
vehicles
decisions
four
cases
perfectly
straightforward
provide
evidence
confusion
state
lower
federal
courts
place
held
although
reasonable
suspicion
justifies
temporary
detention
airline
passenger
luggage
seizure
particular
case
unreasonable
prolonged
delay
ascertaining
existence
probable
cause
course
opinion
noted
decision
ross
modified
holding
sanders
also
relied
chadwick
conclusion
temporary
seizure
luggage
substantially
less
intrusive
search
contents
oklahoma
castleberry
police
officers
probable
cause
believe
defendant
carried
narcotics
blue
suitcases
trunk
car
arresting
opened
trunk
seized
suitcases
searched
without
warrant
state
held
search
invalid
explaining
officer
probable
cause
believe
contraband
somewhere
car
know
exactly
may
search
entire
car
well
containers
found
therein
see
ross
chambers
maroney
carroll
hand
officer
probable
cause
believe
contraband
specific
container
car
must
detain
container
delay
search
search
warrant
obtained
see
ross
arkansas
sanders
chadwick
castleberry
state
case
decides
today
california
appeal
also
difficulty
applying
critical
distinction
relying
chadwick
explained
officers
probable
cause
believe
marijuana
found
brown
lunch
bag
nowhere
else
car
compelled
hold
obtained
search
warrant
opening
cal
app
cal
rptr
case
police
probable
cause
search
two
vehicles
johns
rejected
respondent
reliance
chadwick
straightforward
explanation
case
unlike
ross
involve
exception
warrant
requirement
first
expressed
agreement
appeals
customs
officers
conducted
search
probable
cause
search
vehicles
explained
circumstances
case
respondents
reliance
chadwick
misplaced
chadwick
involve
exception
warrant
requirement
recognized
carroll
supra
police
probable
cause
believe
automobile
contrasted
footlocker
contained
contraband
see
point
underscored
decision
ross
held
notwithstanding
chadwick
police
officers
may
conduct
warrantless
search
containers
discovered
course
lawful
vehicle
search
see
given
conclusion
customs
officers
probable
cause
believe
pickup
trucks
contained
contraband
chadwick
simply
inapposite
see
summarizes
alleged
anomaly
created
coexistence
ross
chadwick
sanders
statement
likely
police
discover
drugs
container
less
authority
search
ante
juxtaposition
anomalous
however
one
accepts
flawed
premise
degree
police
likely
discover
contraband
correlated
authority
search
without
warrant
yet
even
proof
beyond
reasonable
doubt
justify
warrantless
search
supported
one
exceptions
warrant
requirement
even
police
warrant
exception
applies
police
possess
probable
cause
extent
less
certain
contents
container
bearing
authority
search
extent
anomaly
prior
jurisprudence
cured
expense
creating
serious
paradox
surely
anomalous
prohibit
search
briefcase
owner
carrying
exposed
public
street
yet
permit
search
owner
placed
briefcase
locked
trunk
car
one
privacy
interest
one
luggage
certainly
diminished
one
removing
public
thoroughfare
placing
sight
privately
owned
vehicle
danger
evidence
escape
increased
luggage
car
rather
street
either
location
police
probable
cause
authorized
seize
luggage
detain
obtain
judicial
approval
search
line
demarking
exception
warrant
requirement
appear
blurred
edges
certainly
erred
believes
erasing
one
line
drawing
another
drawn
clearer
boundary
privacy
argument
statement
chadwick
sanders
provide
minimal
protection
privacy
ante
also
unpersuasive
every
citizen
clearly
interest
privacy
contents
luggage
briefcase
handbag
container
conceals
private
papers
effects
public
scrutiny
privacy
interest
recognized
repeatedly
cases
spanning
century
see
chadwick
van
leeuwen
ex
parte
jackson
holding
today
privacy
interest
protects
contents
suitcase
briefcase
warrantless
search
public
view
simply
vanishes
owner
climbs
taxicab
unquestionably
rejection
sanders
line
cases
today
decision
result
significant
loss
individual
privacy
support
argument
today
holding
works
minimal
intrusion
privacy
suggests
police
know
may
open
bag
actually
searching
entire
car
may
search
extensively
otherwise
order
establish
general
probable
cause
required
ross
ante
already
noted
see
supra
fear
unexplained
inexplicable
neither
evidence
uncovered
course
search
scope
search
conducted
used
provide
post
hoc
justification
search
unsupported
probable
cause
inception
also
justifies
claim
holding
inflicts
minor
damage
suggesting
new
york
belton
police
arrested
respondent
searched
bag
respondent
placed
bag
passenger
compartment
automobile
instead
trunk
belton
however
justification
stopping
car
arresting
driver
nothing
subsequent
search
based
potential
danger
arresting
officer
holding
belton
supportable
straightforward
application
automobile
exception
see
robbins
california
stevens
dissenting
extend
belton
holding
case
container
protected
warrantless
search
placed
car
provided
justification
arrest
even
accepting
belton
application
case
like
one
however
logic
extends
holding
container
placed
trunk
vehicle
rather
passenger
compartment
makes
extension
without
justification
whatsoever
convenience
law
enforcement
burden
law
enforcement
suggestion
chadwick
sanders
created
significant
burden
effective
law
enforcement
unsupported
inaccurate
event
insufficient
reason
creating
new
exception
warrant
requirement
despite
repeated
claims
chadwick
sanders
impeded
effective
law
enforcement
ante
cites
authority
contentions
moreover
evidence
exist
points
contrary
conclusion
years
since
ross
decided
heard
argument
fourth
amendment
cases
involving
narcotics
one
government
petitioner
save
two
involved
search
seizure
without
warrant
defective
warrant
except
three
upheld
constitutionality
search
seizure
meantime
flow
narcotics
cases
courts
steadily
dramatically
increased
see
annual
report
attorney
general
impartial
observer
criticize
hindering
progress
war
drugs
contrary
decisions
like
one
makes
today
support
conclusion
become
loyal
foot
soldier
executive
fight
crime
even
warrant
requirement
inconvenience
police
extent
fact
distinguish
constitutional
requirement
procedural
protection
secured
bill
rights
merely
part
price
society
must
pay
order
preserve
freedom
thus
unanimous
opinion
relied
johnson
chadwick
justice
stewart
wrote
moreover
mere
fact
law
enforcement
may
made
efficient
never
justify
disregard
fourth
amendment
cf
coolidge
new
hampshire
investigation
crime
always
simplified
warrants
unnecessary
fourth
amendment
reflects
view
wrote
bill
rights
privacy
person
home
property
may
totally
sacrificed
name
maximum
simplicity
enforcement
criminal
law
see
chadwick
mincey
arizona
respectfully
dissent
although
searches
seizures
deeply
concerned
colonists
foremost
minds
framers
involving
invasions
home
mistake
conclude
government
contends
warrant
clause
therefore
intended
guard
intrusions
home
first
warrant
clause
terms
distinguish
searches
conducted
private
homes
searches
also
strong
historical
connection
warrant
clause
initial
clause
fourth
amendment
draws
distinctions
among
persons
houses
papers
effects
safeguarding
unreasonable
searches
seizures
chadwick
judicial
warrant
significant
role
play
provides
detached
scrutiny
neutral
magistrate
reliable
safeguard
improper
searches
hurried
judgment
law
enforcement
officer
engaged
often
competitive
enterprise
ferreting
crime
johnson
lawful
search
begun
also
far
likely
exceed
proper
bounds
done
pursuant
judicial
authorization
particularly
describing
place
searched
persons
things
seized
warrant
assures
individual
whose
property
searched
seized
lawful
authority
executing
officer
need
search
limits
power
search
see
earliest
case
cited
chief
justice
burger
justice
field
opinion
ex
parte
jackson
probable
cause
believe
contraband
driven
away
taxi
police
justified
stopping
vehicle
searching
spot
seizing
suitcase
suspected
contained
contraband
see
chambers
maroney
oral
argument
respondent
conceded
stopping
taxi
seizure
suitcase
constitutionally
unobjectionable
see
tr
oral
arg
arkansas
sanders
ecause
exception
warrant
requirement
invariably
impinges
extent
protective
purpose
fourth
amendment
situations
search
may
conducted
absence
warrant
carefully
delineated
burden
seeking
exemption
show
need
jeffers
framing
question
decision
stated
unlike
chadwick
sanders
case
police
officers
probable
cause
search
respondent
entire
vehicle
moreover
quoted
following
paragraph
justice
powell
opinion
intervening
case
robbins
california
hen
police
probable
cause
search
automobile
rather
search
particular
container
fortuitously
located
exigencies
allow
police
search
entire
automobile
without
warrant
support
warrantless
search
every
container
found
therein
see
post
stevens
dissenting
analysis
entirely
consistent
holdings
chadwick
sanders
neither
automobile
case
police
probable
cause
search
footlocker
suitcase
respectively
either
came
near
automobile
quoted
ross
although
today
purports
acknowledge
warrant
requirement
general
rule
ante
nonetheless
inexplicably
persists
referring
chadwick
sanders
announcing
separate
rule
unique
luggage
closed
packages
bags
containers
ante
equally
inexplicable
contention
overruling
sanders
extend
ed
carroll
doctrine
created
automobile
exception
ante
discussion
johns
case
makes
puzzling
statement
see
benefit
rule
requires
law
enforcement
officers
conduct
intrusive
search
order
justify
less
intrusive
one
see
ante
assume
mean
suggest
evidence
found
course
search
may
provide
probable
cause
justifies
search
cases
unequivocally
rejected
bootstrap
justification
search
lawful
commenced
see
di
byars
perhaps
fears
defendants
attempt
similar
post
hoc
reasoning
argue
police
searched
container
rather
whole
car
must
probable
cause
search
container
fear
unwarranted
johns
foreclosed
argument
see
see
ante
referring
undocumented
prediction
made
justice
blackmun
joined
justice
rehnquist
dissent
chadwick
ante
referring
fact
dissenters
bemoaned
inherent
opaqueness
difference
carroll
chadwick
principles
noted
confusion
created
concerned
one
three
pieces
kamisar
automobile
search
cases
little
clarify
labyrinth
judicial
uncertainty
trends
developments
opperman
ed
written
prior
decision
ross
moreover
rather
criticizing
chadwick
sanders
article
expressly
endorses
justice
brennan
refutation
arguments
advanced
justice
blackmun
dissent
chadwick
see
kamisar
supra
two
articles
written
shortly
ross
criticize
ross
rather
chadwick
sanders
se
gardner
searches
seizures
automobiles
contents
fourth
amendment
considerations
world
neb
rev
latzer
searching
cars
contents
crim
bull
illinois
rodriguez
florida
wells
skinner
railway
labor
executives
treasury
employees
von
raab
florida
riley
michigan
chesternut
california
greenwood
dunn
maryland
garrison
colorado
bertine
california
ciraolo
montoya
de
hernandez
california
carney
sharpe
johns
new
jersey
leon
karo
oliver
together
maine
thornton
jacobsen
michigan
long
illinois
andreas
illinois
lafayette
place
texas
brown
illinois
gates
florida
royer
knotts
see
treasury
employees
von
raab
see
maryland
garrison
illinois
gates
see
florida
wells
place
florida
royer
number
defendants
charged
drug
law
violations
convicted
federal
courts
increased
corresponding
increase
convictions
nondrug
offenses
bureau
justice
statistics
special
report
drug
law
violators
june
percentage
drug
cases
dismissed
district
courts
declined
see
bureau
justice
statistics
federal
criminal
case
processing
addendum
preliminary