arizona gant argued october decided april respondent gant arrested driving suspended license handcuffed locked patrol car officers searched car found cocaine jacket pocket arizona trial denied motion suppress evidence convicted drug offenses reversing state distinguished new york belton held police may search passenger compartment vehicle containers therein contemporaneous incident recent occupant lawful arrest ground concerned scope search incident arrest answer question whether officers may conduct search scene secured chimel california requires search incident arrest justified either interest officer safety interest preserving evidence circumstances gant arrest implicated neither interests state found search unreasonable held police may search passenger compartment vehicle incident recent occupant arrest reasonable believe arrestee might access vehicle time search vehicle contains evidence offense arrest pp warrantless searches per se unreasonable subject specifically established exceptions katz exception search incident lawful arrest applies area within arrestee might gain possession weapon destructible evidence chimel applied exception automobile context belton holding rested large part assumption articles inside vehicle passenger compartment generally within area arrestee might reach pp rejects broad reading belton permit vehicle search incident recent occupant arrest even possibility arrestee gain access vehicle time search safety evidentiary justifications underlying chimel exception authorize vehicle search reasonable possibility access although follow chimel circumstances unique automobile context also justify search incident lawful arrest reasonable believe evidence relevant crime arrest might found vehicle thornton scalia concurring judgment neither chimel rule thornton allowance evidentiary searches authorized search case contrast belton involved single officer confronted four unsecured arrestees five officers handcuffed secured gant two suspects separate patrol cars search began gant clearly accessed car time search evidentiary basis search also lacking belton thornton arrested drug offenses gant arrested driving suspended license offense police reasonably expect find evidence gant car cf knowles iowa search case therefore unreasonable pp unpersuaded state argument expansive reading belton correctly balances law enforcement interests arrestee limited privacy interest vehicle state seriously undervalues privacy interests stake exaggerates clarity provided broad reading belton importance law enforcement interests narrow reading belton thornton together fourth amendment decisions michigan long ross permit officer search vehicle safety evidentiary concerns demand pp stare decisis require adherence broad reading belton experience years since belton shown generalization underpinning broad reading decision unfounded blind adherence faulty assumption authorize myriad unconstitutional searches pp affirmed stevens delivered opinion scalia souter thomas ginsburg joined scalia filed concurring opinion breyer filed dissenting opinion alito filed dissenting opinion roberts kennedy joined breyer joined except part arizona petitioner rodney joseph gant writ certiorari arizona april justice stevens delivered opinion rodney gant arrested driving suspended license handcuffed locked back patrol car police officers searched car discovered cocaine pocket jacket backseat gant accessed car retrieve weapons evidence time search arizona held exception fourth amendment warrant requirement defined chimel california applied vehicle searches new york belton justify search case agree conclusion chimel police may search incident arrest space within arrestee control meaning area within might gain possession weapon destructible evidence safety evidentiary justifications underlying chimel rule determine belton scope accordingly hold belton authorize vehicle search incident recent occupant arrest arrestee secured access interior vehicle consistent holding thornton following suggestion justice scalia opinion concurring judgment case also conclude circumstances unique automobile context justify search incident arrest reasonable believe evidence offense arrest might found vehicle august acting anonymous tip residence north walnut avenue used sell drugs tucson police officers griffith reed knocked front door asked speak owner gant answered door identifying stated expected owner return later officers left residence conducted records check revealed gant driver license suspended outstanding warrant arrest driving suspended license officers returned house evening found man near back house woman car parked front third officer arrived arrested man providing false name woman possessing drug paraphernalia arrestees handcuffed secured separate patrol cars gant arrived officers recognized car entered driveway officer griffith confirmed gant driver shining flashlight car drove gant parked end driveway got car shut door griffith feet away called gant approached meeting feet gant car griffith immediately arrested gant handcuffed arrestees secured patrol cars scene griffith called backup two officers arrived locked gant backseat vehicle gant handcuffed placed back patrol car two officers searched car one found gun discovered bag cocaine pocket jacket backseat gant charged two offenses possession narcotic drug sale possession drug paraphernalia plastic bag cocaine found moved suppress evidence seized car ground warrantless search violated fourth amendment among things gant argued belton authorize search vehicle posed threat officers handcuffed patrol car arrested traffic offense evidence found vehicle asked suppression hearing search conducted officer griffith responded law says app trial rejected state contention officers probable cause search gant car contraband search began denied motion suppress relying fact police saw gant commit crime driving without license apprehended shortly exited car held search permissible search incident arrest jury found gant guilty drug counts sentenced term imprisonment protracted proceedings arizona concluded search gant car unreasonable within meaning fourth amendment opinion discussed length decision belton held police may search passenger compartment vehicle containers therein contemporaneous incident arrest vehicle recent occupant citing distinguished belton case concerning permissible scope vehicle search incident arrest concluded answer threshold question whether police may conduct search incident arrest scene secure relying earlier decision chimel observed exception warrant requirement justified interests officer safety evidence preservation justifications underlying chimel longer exist scene secure arrestee handcuffed secured back patrol car supervision officer concluded warrantless search arrestee car justified necessary protect officers scene prevent destruction evidence accordingly held search gant car unreasonable dissenting justices upheld search gant car based view validity belton search clearly depend presence chimel rationales particular case although disagreed majority view belton dissenting justices acknowledged rule embraced belton long criticized probably merits reconsideration thus add ed voice others urged revisit belton chorus called us revisit belton includes courts scholars members questioned decision clarity fidelity fourth amendment principles therefore granted state petition certiorari ii consistent precedent analysis begins every case addressing reasonableness warrantless search basic rule searches conducted outside judicial process without prior approval judge magistrate per se unreasonable fourth amendment subject specifically established exceptions katz omitted among exceptions warrant requirement search incident lawful arrest see weeks exception derives interests officer safety evidence preservation typically implicated arrest situations see robinson chimel chimel held search incident arrest may include arrestee person area immediate control construing phrase mean area within might gain possession weapon destructible evidence ibid limitation continues define boundaries exception ensures scope search incident arrest commensurate purposes protecting arresting officers safeguarding evidence offense arrest arrestee might conceal destroy see ibid noting searches incident arrest reasonable order remove weapons arrestee might seek use order prevent concealment destruction evidence emphasis added possibility arrestee reach area law enforcement officers seek search justifications exception absent rule apply preston belton considered chimel application automobile context lone police officer case stopped speeding car belton one four occupants asking driver license registration officer smelled burnt marijuana observed envelope car floor marked supergold name associated marijuana thus probable cause believe occupants committed drug offense officer ordered vehicle placed arrest patted without handcuffing officer four separate areas thruway physical touching area searched vehicle including pocket jacket backseat found cocaine new york appeals found search unconstitutional concluding occupants arrested vehicle contents safely within exclusive custody control police state belton state asked consider whether exception recognized chimel permits officer search jacket found inside automobile automobile four occupants arrest standing unsecured around vehicle brief granted certiorari courts ha found workable definition area within immediate control arrestee area arguably includes interior automobile brief state argued appeals erred concluding jacket officer exclusive control focusing number arrestees proximity vehicle state asserted reasonable officer believe arrestees accessed vehicle contents making search permissible chimel brief amicus curiae support state argued permissive standard maintained search incident arrest must arrest requirement deemed satisfied search occurs period arrest consummated situation stabilized said arrest completed brief amicus curiae new york belton suggestion parties amici chimel authorizes vehicle search incident arrest realistic possibility arrestee access vehicle considering arguments held officer lawfully arrests occupant automobile may contemporaneous incident arrest search passenger compartment automobile containers therein belton omitted holding based large part assumption articles inside relatively narrow compass passenger compartment automobile fact generally even inevitably within area arrestee might reach ibid arizona read decision belton merely delineating proper scope search interior automobile incident arrest passenger compartment within arrestee reaching distance belton supplies generalization entire compartment containers therein may reached view belton state concluded search gant car unreasonable gant clearly accessed car time search also found exception warrant requirement applied case gant urges us adopt reading belton followed arizona iii despite textual evidentiary support arizona reading belton opinion widely understood allow vehicle search incident arrest recent occupant even possibility arrestee gain access vehicle time search reading may attributable justice brennan dissent belton characterized holding resting fiction interior car always within immediate control arrestee recently car majority approach argued result presumably even officer handcuffed belton companions patrol car conducting search since decided belton courts appeals given different answers question whether vehicle must within arrestee reach justify vehicle search incident justice brennan reading opinion predominated justice observed lower decisions seem treat ability search vehicle incident arrest recent occupant police entitlement rather exception justified twin rationales chimel thornton opinion concurring part justice scalia similarly noted although improbable arrestee gain access weapons stored vehicle handcuffed secured backseat patrol car cases allowing search precise factual scenario legion opinion concurring judgment collecting cases indeed courts upheld searches belton even handcuffed arrestee already left scene broad reading belton vehicle search authorized incident every arrest recent occupant notwithstanding cases vehicle passenger compartment within arrestee reach time search read belton authorizing vehicle search incident every recent occupant arrest thus untether rule justifications underlying chimel exception result clearly incompatible statement belton way alters fundamental principles established chimel case regarding basic scope searches incident lawful custodial arrests accordingly reject reading belton hold chimel rationale authorizes police search vehicle incident recent occupant arrest arrestee unsecured within reaching distance passenger compartment time although follow chimel also conclude circumstances unique vehicle context justify search incident lawful arrest reasonable believe evidence relevant crime arrest might found vehicle thornton scalia concurring judgment many cases recent occupant arrested traffic violation reasonable basis believe vehicle contains relevant evidence see atwater lago vista knowles iowa others including belton thornton offense arrest supply basis searching passenger compartment arrestee vehicle containers therein neither possibility access likelihood discovering evidence authorized search case unlike belton involved single officer confronted four unsecured arrestees five officers case outnumbered three arrestees handcuffed secured separate patrol cars officers searched gant car circumstances gant clearly within reaching distance car time search evidentiary basis search also lacking case whereas belton thornton arrested drug offenses gant arrested driving suspended license offense police expect find evidence passenger compartment gant car cf knowles police reasonably believed either gant accessed car time search evidence offense arrested might found therein search case unreasonable iv state seriously disagree arizona conclusion gant accessed vehicle time search nevertheless asks us uphold search vehicle broad reading belton discussed state argues belton searches reasonable regardless possibility access given case expansive rule correctly balances law enforcement interests including interest rule arrestee limited privacy interest vehicle several reasons reject state argument first state seriously undervalues privacy interests stake although recognized motorist privacy interest vehicle less substantial home see new york class former interest nevertheless important deserving constitutional protection see knowles particularly significant belton searches authorize police officers search passenger compartment every purse briefcase container within space rule gives police power conduct search whenever individual caught committing traffic offense basis believing evidence offense might found vehicle creates serious recurring threat privacy countless individuals indeed character threat implicates central concern underlying fourth amendment concern giving police officers unbridled discretion rummage among person private time undervalues privacy concerns state exaggerates clarity reading belton provides courts read belton expansively odds regarding close time arrest proximate arrestee vehicle officer first contact arrestee must bring encounter within belton whether search reasonable commences continues arrestee removed rule thus generated great deal uncertainty particularly rule touted providing bright line see lafave contrary state suggestion broad reading belton also unnecessary protect law enforcement safety evidentiary interests view belton thornton permit officer conduct vehicle search arrestee within reaching distance vehicle reasonable believe vehicle contains evidence offense arrest established exceptions warrant requirement authorize vehicle search additional circumstances safety evidentiary concerns demand instance michigan long permits officer search vehicle passenger compartment reasonable suspicion individual whether arrestee dangerous might access vehicle gain immediate control weapons citing terry ohio probable cause believe vehicle contains evidence criminal activity ross authorizes search area vehicle evidence might found unlike searches permitted justice scalia opinion concurring judgment thornton conclude today reasonable purposes fourth amendment ross allows searches evidence relevant offenses offense arrest scope search authorized broader finally may still circumstances safety evidentiary interests justify search cf maryland buie holding incident arrest officer may conduct limited protective sweep areas house reasonably suspects dangerous person may hiding exceptions together ensure officers may search vehicle genuine safety evidentiary concerns encountered arrest vehicle recent occupant justify search construing belton broadly allow vehicle searches incident arrest serve purpose except provide police entitlement anathema fourth amendment permit warrantless search basis reasons unpersuaded state arguments broad reading belton meaningfully law enforcement interests justify substantial intrusion individuals dissenting colleagues argue doctrine stare decisis requires adherence broad reading belton even though justifications searching vehicle incident arrest cases doctrine stare decisis course essential respect accorded judgments stability law compel us follow past decision rationale longer withstands careful analysis lawrence texas never relied stare decisis justify continuance unconstitutional police practice particularly loath uphold unconstitutional result case easily distinguished decisions arguably compel safety evidentiary interests supported search belton simply present case indeed hard imagine two cases factually distinct belton involved one officer confronted four unsecured arrestees suspected committing drug offense case involves several officers confronted securely detained arrestee apprehended driving suspended license case also distinguishable thornton petitioner arrested drug offense thus unsurprising members concurred judgments belton thornton also concur decision agree contention justice alito dissent hereinafter dissent consideration police reliance interests requires different result although appears state reading belton widely taught police academies law enforcement officers relied rule conducting vehicle searches past many searches justified reasons underlying chimel exception countless individuals guilty nothing serious traffic violation constitutional right security private effects violated result fact law enforcement community may view state version belton rule entitlement establish sort reliance interest outweigh countervailing interest individuals share constitutional rights fully protected clear practice unlawful individuals interest discontinuance clearly outweighs law enforcement entitlement persistence cf mincey arizona mere fact law enforcement may made efficient never justify disregard fourth amendment dissent reference regard reliance interests cited dickerson misplaced see post observing miranda become embedded routine police practice point warnings become part national culture referring police reliance rule requiring provide warnings broader societal reliance individual right dissent also ignores checkered history exception police authority search place lawful arrest made broadly asserted marron limited years later importing lefkowitz limiting views expressed lefokwitz turn abandoned harris upheld search apartment incident occupant arrest year later trupiano retreated holding noting exception strictly limited one must justified something way necessity merely lawful arrest two years rabinowitz reversed course upheld search entire apartment finally opinion chimel overruled rabinowitz remained harris established present boundaries exception notably none dissenters chimel cases preceded argued law enforcement reliance interests outweighed interest protecting individual constitutional rights warrant fidelity unjustifiable rule experience years since decided belton shown generalization underpinning broad reading decision unfounded know articles inside passenger compartment rarely within area arrestee might reach blind adherence belton faulty assumption authorize myriad unconstitutional searches doctrine stare decisis require us approve routine constitutional violations vi police may search vehicle incident recent occupant arrest arrestee within reaching distance passenger compartment time search reasonable believe vehicle contains evidence offense arrest justifications absent search arrestee vehicle unreasonable unless police obtain warrant show another exception warrant requirement applies arizona correctly held case involved unreasonable search accordingly judgment state affirmed ordered arizona petitioner rodney joseph gant writ certiorari arizona april justice scalia concurring determine unreasonable search within meaning fourth amendment look first historical practices framers sought preserve provide inadequate guidance apply traditional standards reasonableness see virginia moore slip since historical scope officers authority search vehicles incident arrest uncertain see thornton scalia concurring judgment traditional standards reasonableness govern abundantly clear standards justify take rule set forth new york belton thornton arresting officers may always search arrestee vehicle order protect hidden weapons arrest made connection roadside stop police virtually always less intrusive effective means ensuring safety means virtually always employed ordering arrestee away vehicle patting open handcuffing placing squad car law enforcement officers face risk shot whenever pull car risk height time initial confrontation reduced allowing search stopped vehicle driver arrested placed squad car observed thornton government failed provide single instance formerly restrained arrestee escaped retrieve weapon vehicle arizona amici remedied significant deficiency present case must borne mind speaking rule automatically permitting search driver occupant arrested arrest made held officers may search car reasonably believe suspect dangerous may gain immediate control weapons michigan long case possibility access weapons vehicle always exists since driver passenger allowed return vehicle interrogation completed rule michigan long issue justice stevens acknowledges rationale justify vehicle searches incident arrest asserts rule belton thornton adopted described read cases differently justice stevens therefore retain application chimel california context apply future believes cases held past officers making roadside stop may search vehicle long arrestee within reaching distance passenger compartment time search ante believe standard fails provide needed guidance arresting officers also leaves much room manipulation inviting officers leave scene unsecured least dangerous suspects involved order conduct vehicle search view simply abandon charade officer safety overrule cases hold vehicle search incident arrest ipso facto reasonable object search evidence crime arrest made another crime officer probable cause believe occurred respondent arrested driving without license crime evidence expected found vehicle hold present case search unlawful justice alito insists must demand good reason abandoning prior precedent true enough seems ample reason precedent badly reasoned produces erroneous case unconstitutional results see payne tennessee recognize belton fanciful reliance upon officer safety return broader sort search incident arrest allowed chimel thornton supra scalia concurring judgment citations omitted justice alito argues reason adopt rule limiting searches cases search object evidence crime arrest post dissenting opinion disagree formulation officers authority preserves outcomes prior cases tethers scope rationale doctrine triggering event belton contrast allowed searches precisely rationale least applicable fact arrest automobile context makes searches exigency grounds less reasonable also disagree justice alito conclusory assertion standard difficult administer practice post ease application case suggest otherwise justice however shares view application chimel context entirely abandoned seems unacceptable come forth opinion leaves governing rule uncertain therefore confronted choice either leaving current understanding belton thornton effect acceding seems artificial narrowing cases adopted justice stevens latter said provide degree certainty think desirable field former opens field think plainly unconstitutional searches greater evil therefore join opinion arizona petitioner rodney joseph gant writ certiorari arizona april justice breyer dissenting agree justice alito new york belton best read setting forth rule permits warrantless search passenger compartment automobile incident lawful arrest occupant regardless danger arrested individual fact poses also agree justice stevens however rule produce results divorced underlying fourth amendment rationale compare belton supra chimel california explaining rule allowing contemporaneous searches justified need prevent harm police officer destruction evidence crime reason look better rule question us one first impression matter however one first impression fact makes substantial difference belton rule followed thornton also numerous courts principles stare decisis must apply wish change legal precedent considerable reliance legal rule question bear heavy burden cf leegin creative leather products psks slip breyer dissenting found burden met believe considerations ordinarily relevant determining whether overrule case satisfied consequently join justice alito dissenting opinion exception part arizona petitioner rodney joseph gant writ certiorari arizona april justice alito chief justice justice kennedy join justice breyer joins except part dissenting years ago new york belton held policeman made lawful custodial arrest occupant automobile may contemporaneous incident arrest search passenger compartment automobile omitted five years ago thornton case involving situation materially distinguishable situation reaffirmed extended holding belton making applicable recent occupants today decision effectively overrules important decisions even though respondent gant asked us take place overruled precedents adopts new rule police officer arrests vehicle occupant recent occupant may search passenger compartment arrestee within reaching distance vehicle time search officer reason believe vehicle contains evidence offense arrest ante first part new rule may endanger arresting officers truly endorsed four justices justice scalia joins solely purpose avoiding opinion ante concurring opinion second part new rule taken justice scalia separate opinion thornton without independent explanation origin justification virtually certain confuse law enforcement officers judges time come decision cause suppression evidence gathered many searches carried reliance case law although purports base analysis landmark decision chimel california reasoning undermines chimel follow belton therefore respectfully dissent although refuses acknowledge overruling belton thornton doubt belton officer new york thruway removed occupants car placed arrest handcuff see brief petitioner new york belton officer searched jacket car back seat found drugs divided vote new york appeals held search jacket violated chimel held arresting officer may search area within arrestee immediate control see state belton justices new york appeals disagreed factual question whether belton arrestees gained access car majority thought done dissent thought real possibility opinion gabrielli viewing disagreement application chimel rule illustrative persistent important problem belton concluded single familiar guide police make roadside arrests quoting dunaway new york acknowledged articles passenger compartment car always within arrestee reach order establish workable rule category cases requires adopted rule categorically permits search car passenger compartment incident lawful arrest occupant precise holding belton clearer stated unequivocally hold policeman made lawful custodial arrest occupant automobile may contemporaneous incident arrest search passenger compartment automobile ibid omitted despite explicit statement opinion present case curiously suggests belton may reasonably read adopting holding narrower one explicitly set belton opinion namely officer arresting vehicle occupant may search passenger compartment passenger compartment within arrestee reaching distance ante emphasis original according broader reading belton gained wide acceptance may attributable justice brennan dissent ante contrary suggestion however justice brennan belton dissent mischaracterize holding case cause holding misinterpreted noted belton explicitly stated precisely held thornton recognized scope belton holding see justice scalia separate opinion see opinion concurring judgment belton set forth rule arrests automobile occupants holding search whole passenger compartment justified every case justice scalia opinion present case see ante belton thornton held arresting officers may always search arrestee vehicle order protect hidden weapons rule interred ii substantially overruled belton thornton must explain departure usual rule stare decisis justified recognize stare decisis inexorable command payne tennessee applies less rigidly constitutional cases glidden zdanok plurality opinion said constitutional precedent followed unless abandonment dickerson relevant factors identified prior cases include whether precedent engendered reliance whether important change circumstances outside world randall sorrell plurality opinion burnet coronado oil gas brandeis dissenting whether precedent proved unworkable vieth jubelirer plurality opinion citing payne supra whether precedent undermined later decisions see patterson mclean credit union whether decision badly reasoned vieth supra plurality opinion factors weigh favor retaining rule established belton reliance reliance important cases involving property contract rights payne supra recognized reliance law enforcement officers also entitled weight dickerson held principles stare decisis weigh ed heavily overruling miranda arizona miranda rule become embedded routine police practice reliance dickerson certainly substantial reliance belton rule taught police officers quarter century many searches almost certainly including figure cases appeal conducted scrupulous reliance precedent likely day opinion announced numerous vehicle searches conducted good faith police officers taught belton rule opinion recognizes belton widely taught police academies law enforcement officers relied rule conducting vehicle searches past years ante seemingly counts nothing never relied stare decisis justify continuance unconstitutional police practice ante course routinely relies decisions sustaining constitutionality police practices without done sua sponte considering whether decisions overruled cites authority proposition stare decisis may disregarded provides lesser protection precedent challenged one sustained constitutionality law enforcement practice also errs arguing reliance interest given heavy weight dickerson police reliance rule requiring provide warnings broader societal reliance individual right ante dickerson opinion makes reference societal reliance petitioner case contended reliance miranda among things nearly years miranda requirements ha shaped law enforcement training police conduct see brief petitioner dickerson changed circumstances abandonment belton rule justified ground dangers surrounding arrest vehicle occupant different today years ago claims know articles inside passenger compartment rarely area arrestee might reach ante surely well known person taken vehicle handcuffed placed back patrol car unlikely make back car retrieve weapon destroy evidence workability belton rule proved unworkable contrary rule adopted express purpose providing test relatively easy police officers judges apply correctly notes even belton rule perfectly clear situations specifically sometimes debatable whether search contemporaneous arrest ante problem small comparison problems new rule produce first part new rule permits search vehicle passenger compartment within arrestee reach time search reintroduces sort decisionmaking belton rule adopted avoid situation belton illustrated cases unclear whether arrestee retrieve weapon evidence passenger compartment car even serious problems also result second part new rule requires officers making roadside arrests determine whether reason believe vehicle contains evidence crime arrest rule permits variety situations entirely unclear consistency later cases belton rule undermined subsequent cases contrary rule reaffirmed extended five years ago thornton bad reasoning harshly critical belton reasoning problem perceives remedied simply overruling belton belton represented modest quite defensible extension chimel understand decision prior chimel precedents permitted arresting officer search area within arrestee possession control purpose gathering evidence see based abstract doctrine sustained searches extended far beyond arrestee grabbing area see rabinowitz search entire office harris search entire apartment chimel opinion written justice stewart overruled cases concluding two justifications warrantless search incident arrest officer safety preservation evidence stated search must confined arrestee person area within might gain possession weapon destructible evidence unfortunately chimel say whether area within arrestee might gain possession weapon destructible evidence measured time arrest time search unless chimel rule meant specialty rule applicable unusual cases must intended area measured time arrest hardly failed appreciate following two facts first great majority cases officer making arrest able handcuff arrestee remove secure place conducting search incident arrest see ante stating rare case arresting officer secure arrestee conducting search second safer arresting officer secure arrestee searching likely arresting officers great majority cases appears surprisingly fact prevailing thus area within arrestee reach assessed time arrest time search chimel rule rarely come play moreover applicability chimel rule turned whether arresting officer chooses secure arrestee prior conducting search rather searching first securing arrestee later rule create perverse incentive arresting officer prolong period arrestee kept area pose danger officer cadc law circuit observed law truly bumble said ass ibid see also tejada police lawfully searched defendant grabbing radius moment arrest legitimate complaint better protect first put outside radius think chimel intended handcuffs use ability arresting officers secure arrestees conducting search incentive facts hardly escaped attention therefore believe chimel intended new rule apply cases arrestee handcuffed search conducted belton view proceeded basis interpretation chimel speaking justice stewart belton reasoned articles passenger compartment car generally even inevitably within arrestee reach undoubtedly true time arrest person seated car plainly true person removed car placed handcuffs accordingly belton must proceeded assumption chimel rule applied time arrest belton able say decision way alter ed fundamental principles established chimel case regarding basic scope searches incident lawful custodial arrests viewing chimel focused time arrest belton new step eliminate need decide basis whether particular person seated car actually reached part passenger compartment weapon evidence hidden reason going reexamine belton also reexamine reasoning chimel belton rests however reexamine chimel thus leaves law relating searches incident arrest confused unstable state first part new rule permits arresting officer search area within arrestee reach time search applies least vehicle occupants recent occupants logical reason rule apply arrestees second part new rule takes uncritically justice scalia separate opinion thornton raises doctrinal practical problems makes effort address example standard type search reason believe rather probable cause type search restricted evidence offense arrest true arrestee vehicle probably likely contain evidence crime arrest crime governing standard search incident arrest easy see officer able search officer reason believe vehicle question possesses evidence crime crime arrest easy see search incident arrest restricted passenger compartment belton rule limited way passenger compartment considered area vehicle occupants generally reach since second part new rule based officer safety preservation evidence ground limitation iii respondent case asked us overrule belton much less chimel respondent argument rests entirely interpretation belton plainly incorrect interpretation disregards belton explicit delineation holding therefore leave reexamination prior precedents another day reexamination undertaken case simply apply belton reverse judgment footnotes officer unable handcuff occupants one set handcuffs see brief petitioner new york belton hereinafter brief compare green holding belton authorize search arrestee vehicle handcuffed lying facedown ground surrounded four police officers feet vehicle edwards finding unauthorized vehicle search conducted arrestee handcuffed back patrol car vasey finding unauthorized vehicle search conducted minutes arrest arrestee handcuffed secured back police car hrasky upholding search conducted hour arrestee apprehended handcuffed placed back patrol car weaver upholding search conducted minutes arrest arrestee handcuffed secured back patrol car white upholding search conducted arrestee handcuffed secured back police cruiser practice searching vehicles incident arrest arrestee handcuffed secured patrol car abated since decided thornton see murphy fed appx hrasky weaver williams fed appx dorsey osife sumrall fed appx officers many means ensuring safe arrest vehicle occupants rare case officer unable fully effectuate arrest real possibility access arrestee vehicle remains cf lafave search seizure ed hereinafter lafave noting availability protective measures ensur es nonexistence circumstances arrestee car doubt case search incident arrest reasonable fourth amendment see maryland garrison chimel stanford texas weeks boyd see also adams works john adams many observed broad reading belton gives police limitless discretion conduct exploratory searches see lafave observing belton creates risk police make custodial arrests otherwise make cover search fourth amendment otherwise prohibits see also mclaughlin trott concurring observing belton applied condone purely exploratory searches vehicles officers definite objective reason search allowed rummage around car see might find state pallone wi abrahamson dissenting state pierce compare caseres declining apply belton arrestee approached police exited vehicle reached residence rainey commonwealth applying belton arrestee apprehended feet vehicle black state ind applying belton arrestee apprehended inside auto repair shop vehicle parked outside compare mclaughlin upholding search commenced five minutes arrestee removed scene snook doward upholding search continued arrestee removed scene lugo holding invalid search commenced arrestee removed scene state badgett holding invalid search continued arrestee removed scene least eight reached conclusion vermont new jersey new mexico nevada pennsylvania new york oregon wyoming declined follow broad reading belton state constitutions see state bauder state eckel camacho state vasquez state wyo state arredondo ct app overruled grounds state steinzig ct app commonwealth white people blasich state fesler app massachusetts statute provides search incident arrest may made purposes seizing weapons evidence offense arrest see commonwealth toole mass citing mass laws ch west justice alito dissenting opinion also accuses us overrul ing belton thornton even though respondent gant asked us post contrary claim narrow reading belton adopt today precisely result gant urged justice alito chosen describe decision overruling earlier cases change fact resulting rule law one advocated respondent justice stevens concurred judgment belton reasons stated dissenting opinion robbins california justice thomas joined opinion thornton justice scalia justice ginsburg concurred judgment case broad reading belton widely accepted doctrine qualified immunity shield officers liability searches conducted reasonable reliance understanding footnotes see moskovitz rule search reason empirical reexamination chimel belton rev understand decision reach following situations first uncommon officer arrest occupants vehicle decision case address question whether situation search passenger compartment may justified ground occupants arrested gain access car retrieve weapon destroy evidence second may situations arresting officer cause fear persons passengers car might attempt retrieve weapon evidence car officer still scene decision case understand address situation either