city
indianapolis
et
al
edmond
et
argued
october
decided
november
petitioner
city
operates
vehicle
checkpoints
roads
effort
interdict
unlawful
drugs
respondents
stopped
checkpoint
filed
suit
claiming
roadblocks
violated
fourth
amendment
district
denied
respondents
preliminary
injunction
seventh
circuit
reversed
holding
checkpoints
contravened
fourth
amendment
held
checkpoint
program
primary
purpose
indistinguishable
general
interest
crime
control
checkpoints
violate
fourth
amendment
pp
rule
search
seizure
unreasonable
fourth
amendment
absent
individualized
suspicion
wrongdoing
limited
exceptions
example
upheld
brief
suspicionless
seizures
fixed
checkpoint
designed
intercept
illegal
aliens
sobriety
checkpoint
aimed
removing
drunk
drivers
road
michigan
dept
state
police
sitz
also
suggested
similar
roadblock
verify
drivers
licenses
registrations
permissible
serve
highway
safety
interest
delaware
prouse
however
never
approved
checkpoint
program
whose
primary
purpose
detect
evidence
ordinary
criminal
wrongdoing
pp
latter
purpose
principally
distinguishes
checkpoints
issue
previously
approved
designed
serve
purposes
closely
related
problems
policing
border
necessity
ensuring
roadway
safety
petitioners
state
sitz
checkpoints
ultimate
purpose
arresting
suspected
committing
crimes
securing
border
apprehending
drunken
drivers
law
enforcement
activities
authorities
employ
arrests
criminal
prosecutions
pursue
goals
case
rest
high
level
generality
little
check
authorities
ability
construct
roadblocks
almost
conceivable
law
enforcement
purpose
checkpoint
program
also
justified
severe
intractable
nature
drug
problem
gravity
threat
alone
dispositive
questions
concerning
means
law
enforcement
may
employ
pursue
given
purpose
rather
determining
whether
individualized
suspicion
required
must
consider
nature
interests
threatened
connection
particular
law
enforcement
practices
issue
checkpoints
purpose
rationalized
terms
highway
safety
concern
similar
sitz
merely
likened
antismuggling
purpose
neither
whren
bond
precludes
inquiry
checkpoint
program
purposes
program
justified
lawful
secondary
purposes
keeping
impaired
motorists
road
verifying
licenses
registrations
authorities
able
establish
checkpoints
virtually
purpose
long
also
included
license
sobriety
check
must
determine
primary
purpose
checkpoint
program
holding
alter
constitutional
status
checkpoints
approved
sitz
type
checkpoint
suggested
prouse
also
affect
validity
border
searches
searches
airports
government
buildings
need
measures
ensure
public
safety
particularly
acute
impair
police
officers
ability
act
appropriately
upon
information
properly
learn
checkpoint
stop
justified
lawful
primary
purpose
finally
purpose
inquiry
conducted
programmatic
level
invitation
probe
minds
individual
officers
acting
scene
pp
affirmed
delivered
opinion
stevens
kennedy
souter
ginsburg
breyer
joined
rehnquist
filed
dissenting
opinion
thomas
joined
scalia
joined
part
thomas
filed
dissenting
opinion
city
indianapolis
et
petitioners
james
edmond
et
al
writ
certiorari
appeals
seventh
circuit
november
justice
delivered
opinion
michigan
dept
state
police
sitz
held
brief
suspicionless
seizures
highway
checkpoints
purposes
combating
drunk
driving
intercepting
illegal
immigrants
constitutional
consider
constitutionality
highway
checkpoint
program
whose
primary
purpose
discovery
interdiction
illegal
narcotics
august
city
indianapolis
began
operate
vehicle
checkpoints
indianapolis
roads
effort
interdict
unlawful
drugs
city
conducted
six
roadblocks
august
november
year
stopping
vehicles
arresting
motorists
arrests
crimes
offenses
unrelated
drugs
edmond
goldsmith
overall
hit
rate
program
thus
approximately
nine
percent
parties
stipulated
facts
concerning
operation
checkpoints
indianapolis
police
department
ipd
purposes
preliminary
injunction
proceedings
instituted
checkpoint
location
police
stop
predetermined
number
vehicles
approximately
officers
stationed
checkpoint
pursuant
written
directives
issued
chief
police
least
one
officer
approaches
vehicle
advises
driver
stopped
briefly
drug
checkpoint
asks
driver
produce
license
registration
officer
also
looks
signs
impairment
conducts
examination
vehicle
outside
dog
walks
around
outside
stopped
vehicle
directives
instruct
officers
may
conduct
search
consent
based
appropriate
quantum
particularized
suspicion
officers
must
conduct
stop
manner
particularized
suspicion
develops
officers
discretion
stop
vehicle
sequence
city
agreed
stipulation
operate
checkpoints
way
ensure
total
duration
stop
absent
reasonable
suspicion
probable
cause
five
minutes
less
affidavit
indianapolis
police
sergeant
marshall
depew
although
technically
outside
parties
stipulation
provides
insight
concerning
operation
checkpoints
according
sergeant
depew
checkpoint
locations
selected
weeks
advance
based
considerations
area
crime
statistics
traffic
flow
checkpoints
generally
operated
daylight
hours
identified
lighted
signs
reading
narcotics
checkpoint
mile
ahead
narcotics
use
prepared
stop
app
pet
cert
group
cars
stopped
traffic
proceeds
without
interruption
stopped
cars
processed
diverted
processing
sergeant
depew
also
stated
average
stop
vehicle
subject
processing
lasts
two
three
minutes
less
respondents
james
edmond
joell
palmer
stopped
narcotics
checkpoint
late
september
respondents
filed
lawsuit
behalf
class
motorists
stopped
subject
stopped
future
indianapolis
drug
checkpoints
respondents
claimed
roadblocks
violated
fourth
amendment
constitution
search
seizure
provision
indiana
constitution
respondents
requested
declaratory
injunctive
relief
class
well
damages
attorney
fees
respondents
moved
preliminary
injunction
although
respondents
alleged
officers
stopped
follow
written
directives
agreed
stipulation
concerning
operation
checkpoints
purposes
preliminary
injunction
proceedings
parties
also
stipulated
certification
plaintiff
class
district
southern
district
indiana
agreed
class
certification
denied
motion
preliminary
injunction
holding
checkpoint
program
violate
fourth
amendment
edmond
goldsmith
supp
divided
panel
appeals
seventh
circuit
reversed
holding
checkpoints
contravened
fourth
amendment
panel
denied
rehearing
granted
certiorari
affirm
ii
fourth
amendment
requires
searches
seizures
reasonable
search
seizure
ordinarily
unreasonable
absence
individualized
suspicion
wrongdoing
chandler
miller
suspicion
irreducible
component
reasonableness
random
drug
testing
treasury
employees
von
raab
drug
tests
customs
service
employees
seeking
transfer
promotion
certain
positions
skinner
railway
labor
executives
drug
alcohol
tests
railway
employees
involved
train
accidents
found
violation
particular
safety
regulations
also
allowed
searches
certain
administrative
purposes
without
particularized
suspicion
misconduct
provided
searches
appropriately
limited
see
new
york
burger
warrantless
administrative
inspection
premises
closely
regulated
business
michigan
tyler
administrative
inspection
premises
determine
cause
blaze
camara
municipal
city
county
san
francisco
administrative
inspection
ensure
compliance
city
housing
code
also
upheld
brief
suspicionless
seizures
motorists
fixed
border
patrol
checkpoint
designed
intercept
illegal
aliens
supra
sobriety
checkpoint
aimed
removing
drunk
drivers
road
michigan
dept
state
police
sitz
addition
delaware
prouse
suggested
similar
type
roadblock
purpose
verifying
drivers
licenses
vehicle
registrations
permissible
none
cases
however
indicate
approval
checkpoint
program
whose
primary
purpose
detect
evidence
ordinary
criminal
wrongdoing
entertained
fourth
amendment
challenges
stops
two
permanent
immigration
checkpoints
located
major
highways
less
miles
mexican
border
noted
outset
particular
context
constitutional
question
arose
describing
detail
formidable
law
enforcement
problems
posed
northbound
tide
illegal
entrants
supra
problems
also
focus
several
earlier
cases
addressing
constitutionality
border
patrol
operations
see
ortiz
found
balance
tipped
favor
government
interests
policing
nation
borders
finding
emphasized
difficulty
effectively
containing
illegal
immigration
border
also
stressed
impracticality
particularized
study
given
car
discern
whether
transporting
illegal
aliens
well
relatively
modest
degree
intrusion
entailed
stops
subsequent
cases
confirmed
considerations
specifically
related
need
police
border
significant
factor
decision
example
montoya
de
hernandez
counted
one
number
fourth
amendment
cases
reflect
longstanding
concern
protection
integrity
border
although
stops
occur
border
checkpoints
located
near
border
served
border
control
function
made
necessary
difficulty
guarding
border
entire
length
see
supra
sitz
evaluated
constitutionality
michigan
highway
sobriety
checkpoint
program
sitz
checkpoint
involved
brief
suspicionless
stops
motorists
police
officers
detect
signs
intoxication
remove
impaired
drivers
road
motorists
exhibited
signs
intoxication
diverted
license
registration
check
warranted
sobriety
tests
checkpoint
program
clearly
aimed
reducing
immediate
hazard
posed
presence
drunk
drivers
highways
obvious
connection
imperative
highway
safety
law
enforcement
practice
issue
gravity
drunk
driving
problem
magnitude
state
interest
getting
drunk
drivers
road
weighed
heavily
determination
program
constitutional
see
prouse
invalidated
discretionary
suspicionless
stop
spot
check
motorist
driver
license
vehicle
registration
officer
conduct
case
unconstitutional
primarily
account
exercise
standardless
unconstrained
discretion
nonetheless
acknowledged
vital
interest
ensuring
qualified
permitted
operate
motor
vehicles
vehicles
fit
safe
operation
hence
licensing
registration
vehicle
inspection
requirements
observed
accordingly
suggested
uestioning
oncoming
traffic
stops
lawful
means
serving
interest
highway
safety
indicated
prouse
considered
purposes
hypothetical
roadblock
distinct
general
purpose
investigating
crime
state
proffered
additional
interests
apprehension
stolen
motor
vehicles
drivers
influence
alcohol
narcotics
effort
justify
discretionary
spot
check
attributed
entirety
latter
interest
state
interest
roadway
safety
ibid
also
noted
interest
apprehending
stolen
vehicles
may
partly
subsumed
interest
roadway
safety
ibid
observed
however
remaining
governmental
interest
controlling
automobile
thefts
distinguishable
general
interest
crime
control
ibid
common
thread
highway
safety
thus
run
sitz
prouse
prouse
reveals
difference
fourth
amendment
significance
highway
safety
interests
general
interest
crime
control
iii
well
established
vehicle
stop
highway
checkpoint
effectuates
seizure
within
meaning
fourth
amendment
see
sitz
supra
fact
officers
walk
dog
around
exterior
car
indianapolis
checkpoints
transform
seizure
search
see
place
place
exterior
sniff
automobile
require
entry
car
designed
disclose
information
presence
absence
narcotics
see
ibid
like
dog
sniff
place
sniff
dog
simply
walks
around
car
much
less
intrusive
typical
search
ibid
cf
turpin
rather
principally
distinguishes
checkpoints
previously
approved
primary
purpose
petitioners
concede
indianapolis
checkpoint
program
unquestionably
primary
purpose
interdicting
illegal
narcotics
stipulation
facts
parties
repeatedly
refer
checkpoints
drug
checkpoints
describe
operated
city
indianapolis
effort
interdict
unlawful
drugs
indianapolis
app
pet
cert
addition
first
document
attached
parties
stipulation
entitled
drug
checkpoint
contact
officer
directives
order
chief
police
directives
instruct
officers
dvise
citizen
stopped
briefly
drug
checkpoint
ibid
second
document
attached
stipulation
entitled
drug
road
blocks
contains
statistical
breakdown
information
relating
checkpoints
conducted
according
sergeant
depew
checkpoints
identified
lighted
signs
reading
narcotics
checkpoint
mile
ahead
narcotics
use
prepared
stop
finally
district
appeals
recognized
primary
purpose
roadblocks
interdiction
narcotics
supp
noting
parties
stress
primary
purpose
roadblocks
interdiction
narcotics
ipd
made
clear
purpose
checkpoints
interdict
narcotics
traffic
observing
city
concedes
proximate
goal
catch
drug
offenders
never
approved
checkpoint
program
whose
primary
purpose
detect
evidence
ordinary
criminal
wrongdoing
rather
checkpoint
cases
recognized
limited
exceptions
general
rule
seizure
must
accompanied
measure
individualized
suspicion
suggested
prouse
credit
general
interest
crime
control
justification
regime
suspicionless
stops
consistent
suggestion
checkpoint
programs
approved
designed
primarily
serve
purposes
closely
related
problems
policing
border
necessity
ensuring
roadway
safety
primary
purpose
indianapolis
narcotics
checkpoint
program
uncover
evidence
ordinary
criminal
wrongdoing
program
contravenes
fourth
amendment
petitioners
propose
several
ways
purpose
instant
checkpoint
program
may
instead
resemble
primary
purposes
checkpoints
sitz
petitioners
state
checkpoints
cases
ultimate
purpose
arresting
suspected
committing
crimes
brief
petitioners
securing
border
apprehending
drunk
drivers
course
law
enforcement
activities
law
enforcement
officers
employ
arrests
criminal
prosecutions
pursuit
goals
see
sitz
rest
case
high
level
generality
little
check
ability
authorities
construct
roadblocks
almost
conceivable
law
enforcement
purpose
without
drawing
line
roadblocks
designed
primarily
serve
general
interest
crime
control
fourth
amendment
little
prevent
intrusions
becoming
routine
part
american
life
petitioners
also
emphasize
severe
intractable
nature
drug
problem
justification
checkpoint
program
brief
petitioners
doubt
traffic
illegal
narcotics
creates
social
harms
first
magnitude
cf
von
raab
law
enforcement
problems
drug
trade
creates
likewise
remain
daunting
complex
particularly
light
myriad
forms
crime
spawns
cf
montoya
de
hernandez
said
various
illegal
activities
lesser
degree
gravity
threat
alone
dispositive
questions
concerning
means
law
enforcement
officers
may
employ
pursue
given
purpose
rather
determining
whether
individualized
suspicion
required
must
consider
nature
interests
threatened
connection
particular
law
enforcement
practices
issue
particularly
reluctant
recognize
exceptions
general
rule
individualized
suspicion
governmental
authorities
primarily
pursue
general
crime
control
ends
purpose
checkpoints
rationalized
terms
highway
safety
concern
similar
present
sitz
detection
punishment
almost
criminal
offense
serves
broadly
safety
community
streets
doubt
safer
scourge
illegal
drugs
respect
smaller
class
offenses
however
society
confronted
type
immediate
threat
life
limb
sobriety
checkpoint
sitz
designed
eliminate
petitioners
also
liken
anticontraband
agenda
indianapolis
checkpoints
antismuggling
purpose
checkpoints
brief
petitioners
petitioners
cite
conclusion
flow
traffic
heavy
permit
particularized
study
given
car
enable
identified
possible
carrier
illegal
aliens
supra
claim
logic
even
force
problem
argument
logic
prevails
time
vehicle
employed
conceal
contraband
evidence
crime
type
connection
roadway
different
close
connection
roadway
safety
present
sitz
prouse
indianapolis
checkpoints
far
removed
border
context
crucial
difficulty
examining
passing
car
important
factor
validating
law
enforcement
technique
employed
factor
alone
justify
regime
suspicionless
searches
seizures
rather
must
look
closely
nature
public
interests
regime
designed
principally
serve
primary
purpose
indianapolis
narcotics
checkpoints
end
advance
general
interest
crime
control
prouse
decline
suspend
usual
requirement
individualized
suspicion
police
seek
employ
checkpoint
primarily
ordinary
enterprise
investigating
crimes
sanction
stops
justified
generalized
possibility
interrogation
inspection
may
reveal
given
motorist
committed
crime
course
circumstances
may
justify
law
enforcement
checkpoint
primary
purpose
otherwise
emergency
relate
ordinary
crime
control
example
appeals
noted
fourth
amendment
almost
certainly
permit
appropriately
tailored
roadblock
set
thwart
imminent
terrorist
attack
catch
dangerous
criminal
likely
flee
way
particular
route
see
exigencies
created
scenarios
far
removed
circumstances
authorities
might
simply
stop
cars
matter
course
see
happens
felon
leaving
jurisdiction
limit
purposes
may
justify
checkpoint
program
rigid
set
categories
decline
approve
program
whose
primary
purpose
ultimately
indistinguishable
general
interest
crime
petitioners
argue
prior
cases
preclude
inquiry
purposes
checkpoint
program
example
cite
whren
bond
support
proposition
government
articulates
pursues
legitimate
interest
suspicionless
stop
courts
look
behind
interest
determine
whether
government
primary
purpose
valid
brief
petitioners
see
also
cases
however
control
instant
situation
whren
held
individual
officer
subjective
intentions
irrelevant
fourth
amendment
validity
traffic
stop
justified
objectively
probable
cause
believe
traffic
violation
occurred
stating
inventory
search
must
ruse
general
rummaging
order
discover
incriminating
evidence
colorado
bertine
suggesting
absence
bad
faith
lack
purely
investigative
purpose
relevant
validity
inventory
search
burger
observing
valid
administrative
inspection
conducted
neither
warrant
probable
cause
appear
pretext
gathering
evidence
violations
penal
laws
whren
therefore
reinforces
principle
ubjective
intentions
play
role
ordinary
fourth
amendment
analysis
treasury
employees
von
raab
burger
supra
michigan
tyler
camara
municipal
city
county
san
francisco
likewise
preclude
inquiry
programmatic
purpose
last
term
bond
addressed
question
whether
law
enforcement
officer
violated
reasonable
expectation
privacy
conducting
tactile
examination
luggage
overhead
compartment
bus
simply
noted
principle
whren
rendered
subjective
intent
officer
irrelevant
analysis
petitioners
correctly
observe
analytical
rubric
bond
ordinary
fourth
amendment
analysis
whren
supra
nothing
bond
suggests
extend
principle
whren
situations
individualized
suspicion
lacking
rather
subjective
intent
irrelevant
bond
inquiry
precedents
required
focused
objective
effects
actions
individual
officer
contrast
cases
dealing
intrusions
occur
pursuant
general
scheme
absent
individualized
suspicion
often
required
inquiry
purpose
programmatic
level
petitioners
argue
indianapolis
checkpoint
program
justified
lawful
secondary
purposes
keeping
impaired
motorists
road
verifying
licenses
registrations
brief
petitioners
case
however
law
enforcement
authorities
able
establish
checkpoints
virtually
purpose
long
also
included
license
sobriety
check
reason
examine
available
evidence
determine
primary
purpose
checkpoint
program
recognize
challenges
inherent
purpose
inquiry
courts
routinely
engage
enterprise
many
areas
constitutional
jurisprudence
means
sifting
abusive
governmental
conduct
lawful
cf
result
program
driven
impermissible
purpose
may
proscribed
program
impelled
licit
purposes
permitted
even
though
challenged
conduct
may
outwardly
similar
reasonableness
fourth
amendment
predominantly
objective
inquiry
special
needs
administrative
search
cases
demonstrate
purpose
often
relevant
suspicionless
intrusions
pursuant
general
scheme
goes
without
saying
holding
today
nothing
alter
constitutional
status
sobriety
border
checkpoints
approved
sitz
type
traffic
checkpoint
suggested
lawful
prouse
constitutionality
checkpoint
programs
still
depends
balancing
competing
interests
stake
effectiveness
program
see
sitz
law
enforcement
authorities
pursue
primarily
general
crime
control
purposes
checkpoints
however
stops
justified
quantum
individualized
suspicion
holding
also
affect
validity
border
searches
searches
places
like
airports
government
buildings
need
measures
ensure
public
safety
particularly
acute
opinion
speak
intrusions
aimed
primarily
purposes
beyond
general
interest
crime
control
holding
also
impair
ability
police
officers
act
appropriately
upon
information
properly
learn
checkpoint
stop
justified
lawful
primary
purpose
even
action
may
result
arrest
motorist
offense
unrelated
purpose
finally
caution
purpose
inquiry
context
conducted
programmatic
level
invitation
probe
minds
individual
officers
acting
scene
cf
whren
supra
primary
purpose
indianapolis
checkpoint
program
ultimately
indistinguishable
general
interest
crime
control
checkpoints
violate
fourth
amendment
judgment
appeals
accordingly
affirmed
ordered
city
indianapolis
et
petitioners
james
edmond
et
al
writ
certiorari
appeals
seventh
circuit
november
chief
justice
rehnquist
justice
thomas
joins
justice
scalia
joins
part
dissenting
state
use
dog
according
holding
annuls
otherwise
plainly
constitutional
fourth
amendment
jurisprudence
brief
standardized
discretionless
roadblock
seizures
automobiles
seizures
effectively
serve
weighty
state
interest
minimal
intrusion
privacy
occupants
seizures
serve
state
accepted
significant
interests
preventing
drunken
driving
checking
driver
licenses
vehicle
registrations
nothing
record
indicate
addition
dog
sniff
lengthens
otherwise
legitimate
seizures
dissent
nowhere
found
opinion
begin
blackletter
roadblock
seizure
law
principal
protection
fourth
amendment
rights
checkpoints
lies
appropriate
limitations
scope
stop
roadblock
seizures
consistent
fourth
amendment
carried
pursuant
plan
embodying
explicit
neutral
limitations
conduct
individual
officers
brown
texas
specifically
constitutionality
seizure
turns
upon
weighing
gravity
public
concerns
served
seizure
degree
seizure
advances
public
interest
severity
interference
individual
liberty
first
applied
principles
supra
approved
highway
checkpoints
detecting
illegal
aliens
balanced
formidable
interest
checking
flow
illegal
immigrants
limited
objective
subjective
intrusion
motorists
objective
intrusion
stop
brief
questioning
occupants
visual
inspection
car
considered
limited
either
vehicle
occupants
searched
likewise
subjective
intrusion
fear
surprise
engendered
motorists
nature
stop
found
minimal
regularized
manner
established
checkpoints
operated
visible
evidence
reassuring
motorists
stops
duly
authorized
believed
serve
public
interest
indeed
standardized
operation
roadblocks
viewed
markedly
different
roving
patrols
unbridled
discretion
officers
field
result
unlimited
interference
motorists
use
highways
cf
although
decision
turn
checkpoints
effectiveness
record
one
consolidated
cases
demonstrated
illegal
aliens
found
percent
stopped
vehicles
see
michigan
dept
state
police
sitz
upheld
state
use
highway
sobriety
checkpoint
applying
framework
set
supra
brown
texas
supra
recognized
gravity
state
interest
curbing
drunken
driving
found
objective
intrusion
approximately
seizure
slight
turning
subjective
intrusion
noted
checkpoint
selected
pursuant
guidelines
operated
uniformed
officers
see
finally
concluded
program
effectively
furthered
state
interest
checkpoint
resulted
arrest
two
drunk
drivers
percent
drivers
stopped
see
case
follows
naturally
sitz
petitioners
acknowledge
primary
purpose
roadblocks
interdict
illegal
drugs
fact
controlling
even
accepting
conclusion
checkpoints
issue
sitz
primarily
related
criminal
law
question
whether
law
enforcement
purpose
support
roadblock
seizure
presented
case
district
found
another
purpose
checkpoints
check
driver
licenses
vehicle
registrations
app
pet
cert
written
directives
state
police
officers
ook
signs
impairment
use
roadblocks
look
signs
impairment
validated
sitz
use
roadblocks
check
driver
licenses
vehicle
registrations
expressly
recognized
delaware
prouse
roadblocks
serve
legitimate
state
interests
seriously
disputed
people
arrested
offenses
unrelated
drugs
attest
edmond
goldsmith
speculative
conclude
given
district
findings
written
directives
actual
arrests
petitioners
operated
roadblocks
state
interest
interdicting
drugs
valid
reasons
conducting
roadblock
seizures
constitutionally
irrelevant
petitioners
also
hoped
interdict
drugs
whren
held
officer
subjective
intent
invalidate
otherwise
objectively
justifiable
stop
automobile
reasonableness
officer
discretionary
decision
stop
automobile
issue
whren
turns
whether
probable
cause
believe
traffic
violation
occurred
reasonableness
highway
checkpoints
issue
turns
whether
effectively
serve
significant
state
interest
minimal
intrusion
motorists
stop
whren
objectively
reasonable
police
officers
witnessed
traffic
violations
roadblocks
objectively
reasonable
serve
substantial
interests
preventing
drunken
driving
checking
driver
licenses
vehicle
registrations
minimal
intrusion
motorists
constitutional
requirements
particular
seizure
satisfied
subjective
expectations
responsible
police
officers
members
city
council
irrelevant
cf
scott
subjective
intent
alone
make
otherwise
lawful
conduct
illegal
unconstitutional
objective
effect
state
actions
privacy
individual
animates
fourth
amendment
see
bond
applying
whren
determine
officer
conduct
amounted
search
fourth
amendment
issue
state
mind
objective
effect
actions
objective
intrusion
valid
seizure
turn
upon
anyone
subjective
thoughts
neither
constitutional
checkpoints
serving
two
important
state
interests
remaining
prongs
brown
texas
balancing
test
easily
met
seizure
objectively
reasonable
lasts
average
two
three
minutes
involve
search
app
pet
cert
subjective
intrusion
likewise
limited
checkpoints
clearly
marked
operated
uniformed
officers
directed
stop
every
vehicle
manner
ibid
difference
case
sitz
presence
dog
already
held
however
sniff
test
trained
narcotics
dog
search
within
meaning
fourth
amendment
require
physical
intrusion
object
sniffed
expose
anything
contraband
items
place
nothing
record
indicate
dog
sniff
lengthens
stop
finally
checkpoints
success
rate
arrests
offenses
unrelated
drugs
confirms
state
legitimate
interests
preventing
drunken
driving
ensuring
proper
licensing
drivers
registration
vehicles
stops
effectively
serve
state
legitimate
interests
executed
regularized
tral
manner
minimally
intrude
upon
privacy
motorists
therefore
constitutional
ii
unwilling
adopt
straightforward
analysis
precedents
dictate
adds
new
primary
purpose
test
lifted
distinct
area
fourth
amendment
jurisprudence
relating
searches
homes
businesses
discussed
question
answers
even
posed
case
given
accepted
reasons
seizures
fundamentally
whatever
sense
primary
purpose
test
may
make
search
setting
ill
suited
brief
roadblock
seizures
consistently
looked
scope
stop
assessing
program
constitutionality
already
rejected
invitation
apply
primary
purpose
test
finds
indispensable
respondents
sitz
argued
brown
texas
balancing
test
proper
method
analysis
regards
roadblock
seizures
respondents
argue
must
showing
special
governmental
need
beyond
normal
need
criminal
law
enforcement
balancing
analysis
appropriate
state
ha
demonstrated
special
need
perfectly
plain
reading
treasury
employees
von
raab
cited
discussed
approval
earlier
decision
way
designed
repudiate
prior
cases
dealing
police
stops
motorists
public
highways
supra
utilized
balancing
analysis
approving
highway
checkpoints
detecting
illegal
aliens
brown
texas
supra
relevant
authorities
considerations
stare
decisis
aside
perfectly
plain
reason
incorporating
special
needs
test
roadblock
seizure
cases
seizures
automobiles
deal
neither
searches
sanctity
private
dwellings
ordinarily
afforded
stringent
fourth
amendment
protection
supra
special
needs
doctrine
used
uphold
certain
suspicionless
searches
performed
reasons
unrelated
law
enforcement
exception
general
rule
search
must
based
individualized
suspicion
wrongdoing
see
skinner
railway
labor
executives
drug
test
search
camara
municipal
city
county
san
francisco
home
administrative
search
doctrine
permits
intrusions
person
body
home
areas
afforded
greatest
fourth
amendment
protection
intrusions
ne
expectation
privacy
automobile
freedom
operation
significantly
different
traditional
expectation
privacy
freedom
one
residence
supra
utomobiles
unlike
homes
subjected
pervasive
continuing
governmental
regulation
controls
south
dakota
opperman
see
also
new
york
class
utomobiles
justifiably
subject
pervasive
regulation
state
cardwell
lewis
one
lesser
expectation
privacy
motor
vehicle
function
transportation
seldom
serves
one
residence
repository
personal
effects
lowered
expectation
privacy
one
automobile
coupled
limited
nature
intrusion
brief
standardized
nonintrusive
brief
seizure
automobile
hardly
compared
intrusive
search
body
home
thus
special
needs
inquiry
serves
define
limit
permissible
scope
searches
brown
texas
balancing
test
serves
define
limit
permissible
scope
automobile
seizures
extrinsic
limitations
upon
roadblock
seizures
newfound
primary
purpose
test
unnecessary
secure
fourth
amendment
rights
bound
produce
litigation
purpose
given
seizure
police
designing
highway
roadblocks
never
sure
validity
since
jury
might
later
determine
forbidden
purpose
exists
roadblock
stops
identical
one
upheld
sitz
years
ago
one
upheld
years
ago
may
challenged
grounds
concealed
forbidden
purpose
efforts
enforce
law
public
highways
used
millions
motorists
obviously
necessary
society
opinion
today
casts
shadow
assumed
basis
stare
decisis
perfectly
lawful
activity
conversely
indianapolis
police
assigned
different
purpose
activity
way
changed
done
ground
individual
motorists
might
well
valid
see
ante
primary
purpose
test
simply
serve
proxy
anything
fourth
amendment
concerned
automobile
seizure
context
petitioners
program
complies
decisions
regarding
roadblock
seizures
automobiles
addition
dog
sniff
add
length
intrusion
stop
stops
consistent
fourth
amendment
reverse
decision
appeals
city
indianapolis
et
petitioners
james
edmond
et
al
writ
certiorari
appeals
seventh
circuit
november
justice
thomas
dissenting
taken
together
decisions
michigan
dept
state
police
sitz
stand
proposition
suspicionless
roadblock
seizures
constitutionally
permissible
conducted
according
plan
limits
discretion
officers
conducting
stops
convinced
sitz
correctly
decided
indeed
rather
doubt
framers
fourth
amendment
considered
reasonable
program
indiscriminate
stops
individuals
suspected
wrongdoing
respondents
however
advocate
overruling
sitz
reluctant
consider
step
without
benefit
briefing
argument
reasons
given
chief
justice
believe
cases
compel
upholding
program
issue
therefore
join
opinion
footnotes
chief
justice
dissent
erroneously
characterizes
opinion
resting
application
primary
purpose
test
post
opinion
nowhere
describes
purposes
sitz
checkpoints
primarily
related
criminal
law
enforcement
post
rather
judgment
turns
fact
primary
purpose
indianapolis
checkpoints
advance
general
interest
crime
control
chief
justice
dissent
also
erroneously
characterizes
opinion
holding
use
dog
annuls
otherwise
plainly
constitutional
fourth
amendment
jurisprudence
post
constitutional
defect
program
primary
purpose
advance
general
interest
crime
control
petitioners
concede
primary
purpose
indianapolis
checkpoints
narcotics
detection
need
decide
whether
state
may
establish
checkpoint
program
primary
purpose
checking
licenses
driver
sobriety
secondary
purpose
interdicting
narcotics
specifically
express
view
question
whether
police
may
expand
scope
license
sobriety
checkpoint
seizure
order
detect
presence
drugs
stopped
car
cf
new
jersey
search
must
reasonably
related
scope
circumstance
justified
interference
first
place
quoting
terry
ohio
michigan
clifford
plurality
opinion
footnotes
record
one
consolidated
cases
indicated
stops
lasted
three
five
minutes
see
gloss
see
ante
obvious
respondents
criminally
prosecuted
illegally
transporting
aliens
expressly
noted
nterdicting
flow
illegal
entrants
mexico
poses
formidable
law
enforcement
problems
however
persuasive
distinction
opinion
impugn
continuing
validity
sitz
see
ante
several
courts
appeals
upheld
roadblocks
check
driver
licenses
vehicle
registrations
see
mcfayden
cadc
course
looked
purpose
program
analyzing
constitutionality
certain
suspicionless
searches
discussed
part
ii
infra
doctrine
never
applied
seizures
automobiles
put
statistical
terms
percent
motorists
stopped
arrested
offenses
unrelated
drugs
fact
distinguishes
roadblock
seizure
automobile
inventory
search
automobile
cf
colorado
bertine
automobile
inventory
search