board
education
independent
school
district
pottawatomie
county
et
al
earls
et
argued
march
decided
june
student
activities
drug
testing
policy
policy
adopted
tecumseh
oklahoma
school
district
school
district
requires
middle
high
school
students
consent
urinalysis
testing
drugs
order
participate
extracurricular
activity
practice
policy
applied
competitive
extracurricular
activities
sanctioned
oklahoma
secondary
schools
activities
association
ossaa
respondent
high
school
students
parents
brought
action
equitable
relief
alleging
policy
violates
fourth
amendment
applying
vernonia
school
dist
acton
upheld
suspicionless
drug
testing
school
athletes
district
granted
school
district
summary
judgment
tenth
circuit
reversed
holding
policy
violated
fourth
amendment
concluded
imposing
suspicionless
drug
testing
program
school
must
demonstrate
identifiable
drug
abuse
problem
among
sufficient
number
tested
testing
group
actually
redress
drug
problem
held
school
district
failed
demonstrate
problem
among
tecumseh
students
participating
competitive
extracurricular
activities
held
tecumseh
policy
reasonable
means
furthering
school
district
important
interest
preventing
deterring
drug
use
among
schoolchildren
violate
fourth
amendment
pp
searches
public
school
officials
implicate
fourth
amendment
interests
see
vernonia
must
review
policy
reasonableness
touchstone
constitutionality
contrast
criminal
context
probable
cause
finding
unnecessary
public
school
context
unduly
interfere
maintenance
swift
informal
disciplinary
procedures
needed
public
school
context
search
may
reasonable
supported
special
needs
beyond
normal
need
law
enforcement
reasonableness
inquiry
disregard
schools
custodial
tutelary
responsibility
children
finding
individualized
suspicion
may
necessary
upholding
suspicionless
drug
testing
athletes
vernonia
conducted
balancing
intrusion
children
fourth
amendment
rights
promotion
legitimate
governmental
interests
applying
vernonia
principles
somewhat
different
facts
case
demonstrates
tecumseh
policy
also
constitutional
pp
considering
first
nature
privacy
interest
allegedly
compromised
drug
testing
see
vernonia
concludes
students
affected
policy
limited
expectation
privacy
respondents
argue
children
participating
nonathletic
extracurricular
activities
subject
regular
physicals
communal
undress
stronger
expectation
privacy
vernonia
athletes
distinction
however
essential
vernonia
depended
primarily
upon
school
custodial
responsibility
authority
see
event
students
participate
competitive
extracurricular
activities
voluntarily
subject
many
intrusions
privacy
athletes
clubs
activities
require
occasional
travel
communal
undress
rules
requirements
apply
student
body
whole
must
abide
ossaa
rules
faculty
sponsor
monitors
students
compliance
various
rules
dictated
clubs
activities
regulation
diminishes
schoolchildren
expectation
privacy
pp
considering
next
character
intrusion
imposed
policy
see
vernonia
concludes
invasion
students
privacy
significant
given
minimally
intrusive
nature
sample
collection
limited
uses
test
results
put
degree
intrusion
caused
collecting
urine
sample
depends
upon
manner
production
sample
monitored
policy
faculty
monitor
waits
outside
closed
restroom
stall
student
produce
sample
must
listen
normal
sounds
urination
guard
tampered
specimens
ensure
accurate
chain
custody
procedure
virtually
identical
negligible
intrusion
approved
vernonia
ibid
policy
clearly
requires
test
results
kept
confidential
files
separate
student
records
released
school
personnel
need
know
basis
moreover
test
results
turned
law
enforcement
authority
test
results
lead
imposition
discipline
academic
consequences
rather
consequence
failed
drug
test
limit
student
privilege
participating
extracurricular
activities
pp
finally
considering
nature
immediacy
government
concerns
efficacy
policy
meeting
see
vernonia
school
district
provided
sufficient
evidence
shore
program
furthermore
required
particularized
pervasive
drug
problem
allowing
government
conduct
suspicionless
drug
testing
see
treasury
employees
von
raab
need
prevent
deter
substantial
harm
childhood
drug
use
provides
necessary
immediacy
school
testing
policy
given
nationwide
epidemic
drug
use
evidence
increased
drug
use
tecumseh
schools
entirely
reasonable
school
district
enact
particular
drug
testing
policy
pp
reversed
thomas
delivered
opinion
rehnquist
scalia
kennedy
breyer
joined
breyer
filed
concurring
opinion
filed
dissenting
opinion
souter
joined
ginsburg
filed
dissenting
opinion
stevens
souter
joined
board
education
independent
school
district
pottawatomie
county
et
petitioners
lindsay
earls
et
al
writ
certiorari
appeals
tenth
circuit
june
justice
thomas
delivered
opinion
student
activities
drug
testing
policy
implemented
board
education
independent
school
district
pottawatomie
county
school
district
requires
students
participate
competitive
extracurricular
activities
submit
drug
testing
policy
reasonably
serves
school
district
important
interest
detecting
preventing
drug
use
among
students
hold
constitutional
city
tecumseh
oklahoma
rural
community
located
approximately
miles
southeast
oklahoma
city
school
district
administers
tecumseh
public
schools
fall
school
district
adopted
student
activities
drug
testing
policy
policy
requires
middle
high
school
students
consent
drug
testing
order
participate
extracurricular
activity
practice
policy
applied
competitive
extracurricular
activities
sanctioned
oklahoma
secondary
schools
activities
association
academic
team
future
farmers
america
future
homemakers
america
band
choir
pom
pon
cheerleading
athletics
policy
students
required
take
drug
test
participating
extracurricular
activity
must
submit
random
drug
testing
participating
activity
must
agree
tested
time
upon
reasonable
suspicion
urinalysis
tests
designed
detect
use
illegal
drugs
including
amphetamines
marijuana
cocaine
opiates
barbituates
medical
conditions
presence
authorized
prescription
medications
time
suit
respondents
attended
tecumseh
high
school
respondent
lindsay
earls
member
show
choir
marching
band
academic
team
national
honor
society
respondent
daniel
james
sought
participate
academic
together
parents
earls
james
brought
action
school
district
challenging
policy
face
applied
participation
extracurricular
alleged
policy
violates
fourth
amendment
incorporated
fourteenth
amendment
requested
injunctive
declarative
relief
also
argued
school
district
failed
identify
special
need
testing
students
participate
extracurricular
activities
drug
testing
policy
neither
addresses
proven
problem
promises
bring
benefit
students
school
app
applying
principles
articulated
vernonia
school
dist
acton
upheld
suspicionless
drug
testing
school
athletes
district
western
district
oklahoma
rejected
respondents
claim
policy
unconstitutional
granted
summary
judgment
school
district
noted
special
needs
exist
public
school
context
although
school
district
show
drug
problem
epidemic
proportions
history
drug
abuse
starting
presented
legitimate
cause
concern
supp
district
also
held
policy
effective
scarcely
disputed
drug
problem
among
student
body
effectively
addressed
making
sure
large
number
students
participating
competitive
extracurricular
activities
use
drugs
appeals
tenth
circuit
reversed
holding
policy
violated
fourth
amendment
appeals
agreed
district
policy
must
evaluated
unique
environment
school
setting
reached
different
conclusion
policy
constitutionality
imposing
suspicionless
drug
testing
program
appeals
concluded
school
must
demonstrate
identifiable
drug
abuse
problem
among
sufficient
number
subject
testing
testing
group
students
actually
redress
drug
problem
appeals
held
school
district
failed
demonstrate
problem
existed
among
tecumseh
students
participating
competitive
extracurricular
activities
policy
unconstitutional
granted
certiorari
reverse
ii
fourth
amendment
constitution
protects
right
people
secure
persons
houses
papers
effects
unreasonable
searches
seizures
searches
public
school
officials
collection
urine
samples
implicate
fourth
amendment
interests
see
vernonia
supra
cf
new
jersey
must
therefore
review
school
district
policy
reasonableness
touchstone
constitutionality
governmental
search
criminal
context
reasonableness
usually
requires
showing
probable
cause
see
skinner
railway
labor
executives
standard
however
peculiarly
related
criminal
investigations
may
unsuited
determining
reasonableness
administrative
searches
government
seeks
prevent
development
hazardous
conditions
treasury
employees
von
raab
internal
quotation
marks
citations
omitted
collecting
cases
also
held
warrant
finding
probable
cause
unnecessary
public
school
context
requirements
unduly
interfere
maintenance
swift
informal
disciplinary
procedures
needed
vernonia
supra
quoting
supra
given
school
district
policy
way
related
conduct
criminal
investigations
see
part
infra
respondents
contend
school
district
requires
probable
cause
testing
students
drug
use
respondents
instead
argue
drug
testing
must
based
least
level
individualized
suspicion
see
brief
respondents
true
generally
determine
reasonableness
search
balancing
nature
intrusion
individual
privacy
promotion
legitimate
governmental
interests
see
delaware
prouse
long
held
fourth
amendment
imposes
irreducible
requirement
individualized
suspicion
certain
limited
circumstances
government
need
discover
latent
hidden
conditions
prevent
development
sufficiently
compelling
justify
intrusion
privacy
entailed
conducting
searches
without
measure
individualized
suspicion
von
raab
supra
see
also
skinner
supra
therefore
context
safety
administrative
regulations
search
unsupported
probable
cause
may
reasonable
special
needs
beyond
normal
need
law
enforcement
make
warrant
requirement
impracticable
griffin
wisconsin
quoting
supra
blackmun
concurring
judgment
see
also
vernonia
supra
skinner
supra
significantly
previously
held
special
needs
inhere
public
school
context
see
vernonia
supra
supra
schoolchildren
shed
constitutional
rights
enter
schoolhouse
see
tinker
des
moines
independent
community
school
fourth
amendment
rights
different
public
schools
elsewhere
reasonableness
inquiry
disregard
schools
custodial
tutelary
responsibility
children
vernonia
supra
particular
finding
individualized
suspicion
may
necessary
school
conducts
drug
testing
vernonia
held
suspicionless
drug
testing
athletes
constitutional
however
simply
authorize
school
drug
testing
rather
conducted
balancing
intrusion
children
fourth
amendment
rights
promotion
legitimate
governmental
interests
see
applying
principles
vernonia
somewhat
different
facts
case
conclude
tecumseh
policy
also
constitutional
first
consider
nature
privacy
interest
allegedly
compromised
drug
testing
see
vernonia
context
public
school
environment
serves
backdrop
analysis
privacy
interest
stake
reasonableness
drug
testing
policy
general
see
ibid
central
fact
subjects
policy
children
committed
temporary
custody
state
schoolmaster
see
also
significant
element
case
first
discussed
policy
undertaken
furtherance
government
responsibilities
public
school
system
guardian
tutor
children
entrusted
care
ibid
hen
government
acts
guardian
tutor
relevant
question
whether
search
one
reasonable
guardian
tutor
might
undertake
student
privacy
interest
limited
public
school
environment
state
responsible
maintaining
discipline
health
safety
schoolchildren
routinely
required
submit
physical
examinations
vaccinations
disease
see
securing
order
school
environment
sometimes
requires
students
subjected
greater
controls
appropriate
adults
see
supra
powell
concurring
without
first
establishing
discipline
maintaining
order
teachers
begin
educate
students
apart
education
school
obligation
protect
pupils
mistreatment
children
also
protect
teachers
violence
students
whose
conduct
recent
years
prompted
national
concern
respondents
argue
children
participating
nonathletic
extracurricular
activities
subject
regular
physicals
communal
undress
stronger
expectation
privacy
athletes
tested
vernonia
see
brief
respondents
distinction
however
essential
decision
vernonia
depended
primarily
upon
school
custodial
responsibility
event
students
participate
competitive
extracurricular
activities
voluntarily
subject
many
intrusions
privacy
clubs
activities
require
occasional
travel
communal
undress
rules
requirements
participating
students
apply
student
body
whole
supp
example
competitive
extracurricular
activities
governed
policy
must
abide
rules
oklahoma
secondary
schools
activities
association
faculty
sponsor
monitors
students
compliance
various
rules
dictated
clubs
activities
see
regulation
extracurricular
activities
diminishes
expectation
privacy
among
schoolchildren
cf
vernonia
supra
somewhat
like
adults
choose
participate
closely
regulated
industry
students
voluntarily
participate
school
athletics
reason
expect
intrusions
upon
normal
rights
privileges
including
privacy
internal
quotation
marks
omitted
therefore
conclude
students
affected
policy
limited
expectation
privacy
next
consider
character
intrusion
imposed
policy
see
vernonia
supra
urination
excretory
function
traditionally
shielded
great
privacy
skinner
degree
intrusion
one
privacy
caused
collecting
urine
sample
depends
upon
manner
production
urine
sample
monitored
vernonia
supra
policy
faculty
monitor
waits
outside
closed
restroom
stall
student
produce
sample
must
listen
normal
sounds
urination
order
guard
tampered
specimens
insure
accurate
chain
custody
app
monitor
pours
sample
two
bottles
sealed
placed
mailing
pouch
along
consent
form
signed
student
procedure
virtually
identical
reviewed
vernonia
except
additionally
protects
privacy
allowing
male
students
produce
samples
behind
closed
stall
given
considered
method
collection
vernonia
negligible
intrusion
method
even
less
problematic
addition
policy
clearly
requires
test
results
kept
confidential
files
separate
student
educational
records
released
school
personnel
need
know
basis
respondents
nonetheless
contend
intrusion
students
privacy
significant
policy
fails
protect
effectively
disclosure
confidential
information
specifically
school
careless
protecting
information
example
choir
teacher
looked
students
prescription
drug
lists
left
students
see
brief
respondents
choir
teacher
someone
need
know
trips
needs
know
medications
taken
students
even
policy
enacted
choir
teacher
access
information
see
app
event
allegation
student
see
information
one
example
alleged
carelessness
hardly
increases
character
intrusion
moreover
test
results
turned
law
enforcement
authority
test
results
lead
imposition
discipline
academic
consequences
cf
vernonia
supra
rather
consequence
failed
drug
test
limit
student
privilege
participating
extracurricular
activities
indeed
student
may
test
positive
drugs
twice
still
allowed
participate
extracurricular
activities
first
positive
test
school
contacts
student
parent
guardian
meeting
student
may
continue
participate
activity
within
five
days
meeting
student
shows
proof
receiving
drug
counseling
submits
second
drug
test
two
weeks
second
positive
test
student
suspended
participation
extracurricular
activities
days
must
complete
four
hours
substance
abuse
counseling
must
submit
monthly
drug
tests
third
positive
test
student
suspended
participating
extracurricular
activity
remainder
school
year
school
days
whichever
longer
see
app
given
minimally
intrusive
nature
sample
collection
limited
uses
test
results
put
conclude
invasion
students
privacy
significant
finally
must
consider
nature
immediacy
government
concerns
efficacy
policy
meeting
see
vernonia
already
articulated
detail
importance
governmental
concern
preventing
drug
use
schoolchildren
see
drug
abuse
problem
among
nation
youth
hardly
abated
since
vernonia
decided
fact
evidence
suggests
grown
vernonia
necessity
state
act
magnified
fact
evil
visited
upon
individuals
large
upon
children
undertaken
special
responsibility
care
direction
health
safety
risks
identified
vernonia
apply
equal
force
tecumseh
children
indeed
nationwide
drug
epidemic
makes
war
drugs
pressing
concern
every
school
additionally
school
district
case
presented
specific
evidence
drug
use
tecumseh
schools
teachers
testified
seen
students
appeared
influence
drugs
heard
students
speaking
openly
using
drugs
see
app
deposition
dean
rogers
deposition
sheila
evans
drug
dog
found
marijuana
cigarettes
near
school
parking
lot
police
officers
found
drugs
drug
paraphernalia
car
driven
future
farmers
america
member
school
board
president
reported
people
community
calling
board
discuss
drug
situation
see
supp
decline
guess
finding
district
iewing
evidence
whole
reasonably
disputed
school
district
faced
drug
problem
adopted
policy
respondents
consider
proffered
evidence
insufficient
argue
real
immediate
interest
justify
policy
drug
testing
nonathletes
brief
respondents
recognized
however
demonstrated
problem
drug
abuse
cases
necessary
validity
testing
regime
showing
shore
assertion
special
need
suspicionless
general
search
program
chandler
miller
school
district
provided
sufficient
evidence
shore
need
drug
testing
program
furthermore
required
particularized
pervasive
drug
problem
allowing
government
conduct
suspicionless
drug
testing
instance
von
raab
upheld
drug
testing
customs
officials
purely
preventive
basis
without
documented
history
drug
use
officials
see
response
lack
evidence
relating
drug
use
noted
generally
drug
abuse
one
serious
problems
confronting
society
today
programs
prevent
detect
drug
use
among
customs
officials
deemed
unreasonable
cf
skinner
noting
nationwide
studies
identified
alcohol
drug
use
railroad
employees
likewise
need
prevent
deter
substantial
harm
childhood
drug
use
provides
necessary
immediacy
school
testing
policy
indeed
make
little
sense
require
school
district
wait
substantial
portion
students
begin
using
drugs
allowed
institute
drug
testing
program
designed
deter
drug
use
given
nationwide
epidemic
drug
use
evidence
increased
drug
use
tecumseh
schools
entirely
reasonable
school
district
enact
particular
drug
testing
policy
reject
appeals
novel
test
district
seeking
impose
random
suspicionless
drug
testing
policy
condition
participation
school
activity
must
demonstrate
identifiable
drug
abuse
problem
among
sufficient
number
subject
testing
testing
group
students
actually
redress
drug
problem
among
problems
difficult
administer
test
articulate
threshold
level
drug
use
suffice
justify
drug
testing
program
schoolchildren
refuse
fashion
effect
constitutional
quantum
drug
use
necessary
show
drug
problem
respondents
also
argue
testing
nonathletes
implicate
safety
concerns
safety
crucial
factor
applying
special
needs
framework
brief
respondents
contend
must
surpassing
safety
interests
skinner
supra
extraordinary
safety
national
security
hazards
von
raab
supra
order
override
usual
protections
fourth
amendment
see
brief
respondents
respondents
correct
safety
factors
special
needs
analysis
safety
interest
furthered
drug
testing
undoubtedly
substantial
children
athletes
nonathletes
alike
know
well
drug
use
carries
variety
health
risks
children
including
death
overdose
also
reject
respondents
argument
drug
testing
must
presumptively
based
upon
individualized
reasonable
suspicion
wrongdoing
testing
regime
less
intrusive
see
context
fourth
amendment
require
finding
individualized
suspicion
see
supra
decline
impose
requirement
schools
attempting
prevent
detect
drug
use
students
moreover
question
whether
testing
based
individualized
suspicion
fact
less
intrusive
regime
place
additional
burden
public
school
teachers
already
tasked
difficult
job
maintaining
order
discipline
program
individualized
suspicion
might
unfairly
target
members
unpopular
groups
fear
lawsuits
resulting
targeted
searches
may
chill
enforcement
program
rendering
ineffective
combating
drug
use
see
vernonia
offering
similar
reasons
testing
based
suspicion
drug
use
better
worse
case
repeatedly
stated
reasonableness
fourth
amendment
require
employing
least
intrusive
means
logic
elaborate
arguments
raise
insuperable
barriers
exercise
virtually
powers
see
also
skinner
supra
showing
individualized
suspicion
tional
floor
search
must
presumed
unreasonable
finally
find
testing
students
participate
extracurricular
activities
reasonably
effective
means
addressing
school
district
legitimate
concerns
preventing
deterring
detecting
drug
use
vernonia
might
closer
fit
testing
athletes
trial
finding
drug
problem
fueled
role
model
effect
athletes
drug
use
finding
essential
holding
cf
dissenting
questioning
extent
drug
problem
especially
applied
athletes
vernonia
require
school
test
group
students
likely
use
drugs
rather
considered
constitutionality
program
context
public
school
custodial
responsibilities
evaluating
policy
context
conclude
drug
testing
tecumseh
students
participate
extracurricular
activities
effectively
serves
school
district
interest
protecting
safety
health
students
iii
within
limits
fourth
amendment
local
school
boards
must
assess
desirability
drug
testing
schoolchildren
upholding
constitutionality
policy
express
opinion
wisdom
rather
hold
tecumseh
policy
reasonable
means
furthering
school
district
important
interest
preventing
deterring
drug
use
among
schoolchildren
accordingly
reverse
judgment
appeals
ordered
board
education
independent
school
district
pottawatomie
county
et
petitioners
lindsay
earls
et
al
writ
certiorari
appeals
tenth
circuit
june
justice
breyer
concurring
agree
vernonia
school
dist
acton
governs
case
requires
reversal
tenth
circuit
decision
school
drug
testing
program
addresses
serious
national
problem
focusing
upon
demand
avoiding
use
criminal
disciplinary
sanctions
relying
upon
professional
counseling
treatment
see
app
view
program
violate
fourth
amendment
prohibition
unreasonable
searches
seizures
reach
conclusion
primarily
reasons
given
emphasize
several
underlying
considerations
understand
consistent
opinion
respect
school
need
drug
testing
program
emphasize
following
first
drug
problem
nation
schools
serious
terms
size
kinds
drugs
used
consequences
use
children
rest
us
see
white
house
nat
drug
control
strategy
drug
abuse
leads
annually
deaths
billion
economic
costs
department
health
human
services
johnston
et
monitoring
future
national
results
adolescent
drug
use
overview
key
findings
monitoring
future
students
used
illegal
drugs
completing
eighth
grade
half
completing
high
school
ibid
students
use
drugs
marijuana
prior
completing
high
school
emphasis
added
national
center
addiction
substance
abuse
malignant
neglect
substance
abuse
america
schools
malignant
neglect
early
use
leads
later
drug
dependence
nat
drug
control
strategy
supra
second
government
emphasis
upon
supply
side
interdiction
apparently
reduced
teenage
use
recent
years
compare
perl
crs
issue
brief
congress
drug
control
international
policy
options
supply
side
programs
account
federal
drug
control
budget
partnership
america
partnership
attitude
tracking
study
key
findings
showing
increase
teenage
drug
use
early
peak
ing
steady
thereafter
pride
national
summary
alcohol
tobacco
illicit
drugs
violence
lated
behaviors
grades
thru
apr
http
slight
rise
high
school
drug
use
monitoring
future
table
lifetime
prevalence
drug
use
increasing
last
years
third
public
school
systems
must
find
effective
ways
deal
problem
today
public
expects
schools
simply
teach
fundamentals
shoulder
burden
feeding
students
breakfast
lunch
offering
school
child
care
services
providing
medical
psychological
services
school
environment
safe
encourages
learning
brief
national
school
boards
association
et
al
amici
curiae
see
also
bethel
school
dist
fraser
schools
prepare
pupils
citizenship
republic
inculcate
habits
manners
civility
values
conductive
happiness
indispensable
practice
community
quoting
beard
beard
new
basic
history
law
recognizes
responsibilities
phrase
loco
parentis
phrase
draws
legal
force
primarily
needs
younger
students
necessarily
grouped
together
older
high
school
students
reflects
child
adolescent
lacks
interest
privacy
child
adolescent
privacy
interest
compared
privacy
interests
adult
different
dimensions
cf
vernonia
supra
public
school
system
fails
adequately
carry
responsibilities
may
well
see
parents
send
children
private
parochial
school
instead
help
state
see
zelman
ante
fourth
program
issue
seeks
discourage
demand
drugs
changing
school
environment
order
combat
single
important
factor
leading
school
children
take
drugs
namely
peer
pressure
malignant
neglect
students
whose
friends
use
illicit
drugs
times
likelier
use
illicit
drugs
whose
friends
offers
adolescent
nonthreatening
reason
decline
friend
use
invitations
namely
intends
play
ball
participate
debate
join
band
engage
one
half
dozen
useful
interesting
important
activities
ii
respect
burden
drug
testing
program
imposes
upon
students
emphasize
following
first
everyone
agree
characterization
significance
urine
sampling
negligible
ante
quoting
vernonia
find
procedure
intrusive
routine
medical
examination
others
seriously
embarrassed
need
provide
urine
sample
someone
listening
outside
closed
restroom
stall
ante
trying
resolve
kind
close
question
involving
interpretation
constitutional
values
believe
important
school
board
provided
opportunity
airing
differences
public
meetings
designed
give
entire
community
opportunity
able
participate
developing
drug
policy
app
board
used
democratic
participatory
process
uncover
resolve
differences
giving
weight
fact
process
instance
revealed
little
objection
proposed
testing
program
second
testing
program
avoids
subjecting
entire
school
testing
preserves
option
conscientious
objector
refuse
testing
paying
price
nonparticipation
serious
less
severe
expulsion
school
third
contrary
reading
constitution
requiring
individualized
suspicion
public
school
context
well
lead
schools
push
boundaries
individualized
suspicion
outer
limits
using
subjective
criteria
may
unfairly
target
members
unpopular
groups
ante
leave
whose
behavior
slightly
abnormal
stigmatized
minds
others
see
belsky
random
drug
testing
public
schools
surprising
civil
liberties
dilemma
city
rev
forthcoming
listing
factors
justifying
drug
testing
including
tiredness
overactivity
quietness
boisterousness
sloppiness
excessive
meticulousness
tardiness
direct
application
fourth
amendment
prohibition
unreasonable
searches
seizures
amendment
objectives
least
extent
application
mediating
individualized
suspicion
test
testing
program
neither
criminal
disciplinary
nature
know
whether
school
drug
testing
program
work
view
constitution
prohibit
effort
emphasizing
considerations
mentioned
along
others
refers
conclude
school
drug
testing
program
constitutionally
speaking
unreasonable
join
opinion
board
education
independent
school
district
pottawatomie
county
et
petitioners
lindsay
earls
et
al
writ
certiorari
appeals
tenth
circuit
june
justice
justice
souter
joins
dissenting
dissented
vernonia
school
dist
acton
continue
believe
case
wrongly
decided
vernonia
precedent
agree
petitioners
program
fails
even
balancing
approach
adopted
case
join
justice
ginsburg
dissent
board
education
independent
school
district
pottawatomie
county
et
petitioners
lindsay
earls
et
al
writ
certiorari
appeals
tenth
circuit
june
justice
ginsburg
justice
stevens
justice
justice
souter
join
dissenting
seven
years
ago
vernonia
school
dist
acton
determined
school
district
policy
randomly
testing
urine
student
athletes
illicit
drugs
violate
fourth
amendment
ruling
emphasized
drug
use
increase
risk
injury
vernonia
athletes
leaders
aggressive
local
drug
culture
reached
epidemic
proportions
today
relies
upon
vernonia
permit
school
district
drug
problem
superintendent
repeatedly
described
major
see
app
test
urine
academic
team
member
solely
reason
participation
nonathletic
competitive
extracurricular
activity
participation
associated
neither
special
dangers
particular
predilections
drug
use
legality
search
student
instructed
depend
simply
reasonableness
circumstances
search
new
jersey
although
special
needs
inhere
public
school
context
see
ante
quoting
vernonia
needs
expansive
malleable
render
reasonable
program
student
drug
testing
school
district
elects
install
particular
testing
program
upheld
today
reasonable
capricious
even
perverse
petitioners
policy
targets
testing
student
population
least
likely
risk
illicit
drugs
damaging
effects
therefore
dissent
search
unsupported
probable
cause
nevertheless
may
consistent
fourth
amendment
special
needs
beyond
normal
need
law
enforcement
make
warrant
requirement
impracticable
griffin
wisconsin
internal
quotation
marks
omitted
vernonia
made
clear
special
needs
exist
public
school
context
quoting
griffin
observed
hile
children
assuredly
shed
constitutional
rights
schoolhouse
gate
tinker
des
moines
independent
community
school
nature
rights
appropriate
children
school
fourth
amendment
rights
less
first
fourteenth
amendment
rights
different
public
schools
elsewhere
reasonableness
inquiry
disregard
schools
custodial
tutelary
responsibility
children
citations
omitted
vernonia
concluded
public
school
district
facing
disruptive
explosive
drug
abuse
problem
sparked
members
athletic
teams
special
needs
justified
suspicionless
testing
district
athletes
condition
athletic
participation
case
presents
circumstances
dispositively
different
vernonia
true
stresses
tecumseh
students
participating
competitive
extracurricular
activities
athletics
share
two
relevant
characteristics
athletes
vernonia
first
groups
attend
public
schools
ur
decision
vernonia
depended
primarily
upon
school
custodial
responsibility
authority
ante
see
also
ante
breyer
concurring
school
districts
act
loco
parentis
concern
student
health
safety
basic
school
caretaking
undeniable
drug
use
carries
variety
health
risks
children
including
death
overdose
ante
majority
opinion
risks
however
present
schoolchildren
vernonia
read
endorse
invasive
suspicionless
drug
testing
students
upon
evidence
drug
use
solely
drugs
jeopardize
life
health
use
many
children
like
many
adults
engage
dangerous
activities
time
children
enrolled
school
scarcely
allows
government
monitor
activities
student
reasonable
subjective
expectation
privacy
personal
items
brings
school
see
surely
similar
expectation
regarding
chemical
composition
urine
vernonia
agreed
public
school
attendance
permitted
state
test
student
blood
urine
drugs
opinion
vernonia
saved
many
words
see
must
lost
sight
vernonia
school
district
program
directed
drug
use
school
athletes
risk
immediate
physical
harm
drug
user
playing
sport
particularly
second
commonality
points
voluntary
character
interscholastic
athletics
competitive
extracurricular
activities
choosing
go
team
school
athletes
voluntarily
subject
degree
regulation
even
higher
imposed
students
generally
comparably
today
observes
students
participate
competitive
extracurricular
activities
voluntarily
subject
additional
rules
applicable
students
ante
comparison
enlightening
extracurricular
activities
voluntary
sense
required
graduation
part
school
educational
program
reason
petitioner
hereinafter
school
district
justified
expending
public
resources
make
available
participation
activities
key
component
school
life
essential
reality
students
applying
college
participants
significant
contributor
breadth
quality
educational
experience
see
brief
respondents
brief
american
academy
pediatrics
et
al
amici
curiae
students
volunteer
extracurricular
pursuits
way
might
volunteer
honors
classes
subject
additional
requirements
order
take
full
advantage
education
offered
cf
lee
weisman
attendance
may
required
official
decree
yet
apparent
student
free
absent
graduation
exercise
real
sense
term
voluntary
absence
require
forfeiture
intangible
benefits
motivated
student
youth
high
school
voluntary
participation
athletics
distinctly
different
dimension
schools
regulate
student
athletes
discretely
competitive
school
sports
nature
require
communal
undress
important
expose
students
physical
risks
schools
duty
mitigate
reason
schools
offer
program
competitive
athletics
without
intimately
affecting
privacy
students
vernonia
reasonably
analogized
school
athletes
adults
choose
participate
closely
regulated
industry
interscholastic
athletics
similarly
require
close
safety
health
regulation
school
choir
band
academic
team
short
vernonia
applied
repudiate
principle
legality
search
student
depend
simply
reasonableness
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search
emphasis
added
enrollment
public
school
election
participate
school
activities
beyond
bare
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curriculum
requires
indeed
factors
relevant
reasonableness
justify
intrusive
suspicionless
searches
vernonia
accordingly
rest
upon
factors
instead
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today
majority
aptly
describes
balancing
ante
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order
applied
facts
yield
result
one
announces
today
vernonia
initially
considered
nature
privacy
interest
upon
search
issue
intrude
emphasized
dent
athletes
expectations
privacy
necessarily
attenuated
legitimate
privacy
expectations
even
less
regard
student
athletes
school
sports
bashful
require
suiting
practice
event
showering
changing
afterwards
public
school
locker
rooms
usual
sites
activities
notable
privacy
afford
locker
rooms
vernonia
typical
individual
dressing
rooms
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heads
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along
wall
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partition
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even
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stalls
doors
element
communal
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athletic
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internal
quotation
marks
omitted
competitive
extracurricular
activities
athletics
however
serve
students
manner
modest
shy
along
bold
uninhibited
activities
kind
lindsay
earls
pursued
choir
show
choir
marching
band
academic
team
afford
opportunities
gain
come
know
faculty
members
less
formal
setting
typical
classroom
acquire
positive
social
supports
networks
play
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periods
heightened
stress
brief
american
academy
pediatrics
et
al
amici
curiae
occasional
trips
students
like
lindsay
earls
must
sleep
together
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settings
use
communal
bathrooms
situations
hardly
equivalent
routine
communal
undress
associated
athletics
school
district
admits
trips
occur
restroom
facilities
presumably
include
enclosed
stalls
ordinarily
available
changing
modest
students
find
ways
maintain
privacy
brief
petitioners
describing
school
athletes
reduced
expectation
privacy
vernonia
turned
character
intrusion
complained
observing
students
produce
urine
samples
bathroom
stall
coach
teacher
outside
vernonia
typed
privacy
interests
compromised
process
obtaining
samples
negligible
ibid
required
pretest
disclosure
prescription
medications
taken
assumed
school
district
permitted
student
provide
requested
information
confidential
manner
example
sealed
envelope
delivered
testing
lab
assumption
concluded
vernonia
athletes
faced
significant
invasion
privacy
case
however
lindsay
earls
parents
allege
school
district
handled
personal
information
collected
policy
carelessly
little
regard
confidentiality
information
students
prescription
drug
use
assert
routinely
viewed
lindsay
choir
teacher
left
files
containing
information
unlocked
unsealed
others
including
students
see
test
results
given
activity
sponsors
whether
clear
need
know
see
brief
respondents
app
see
policy
requires
medication
list
shall
submitted
lab
sealed
confidential
envelope
shall
viewed
district
employees
granting
summary
judgment
school
district
district
observed
district
policy
expressly
provides
confidentiality
test
results
must
assume
confidentiality
provisions
honored
supp
wd
assumption
unwarranted
unlike
vernonia
district
held
bench
trial
ruling
school
district
favor
case
decided
district
summary
judgment
stage
doubtful
matters
resolved
favor
judgment
seeker
see
diebold
per
curiam
summary
judgment
inferences
drawn
underlying
facts
contained
affidavits
attached
exhibits
depositions
must
viewed
light
favorable
party
opposing
motion
see
also
wright
miller
kane
federal
practice
procedure
pp
ed
finally
nature
immediacy
governmental
concern
vernonia
faced
vernonia
school
district
dwarfed
confronting
tecumseh
administrators
vernonia
initiated
drug
testing
policy
response
alarming
situation
large
segment
student
body
particularly
involved
interscholastic
athletics
state
rebellion
fueled
alcohol
drug
abuse
well
student
misperceptions
drug
culture
internal
quotation
marks
omitted
tecumseh
contrast
repeatedly
reported
federal
government
period
leading
adoption
policy
types
drugs
alcohol
tobacco
including
controlled
dangerous
substances
present
schools
identified
major
problems
time
tecumseh
school
application
funds
safe
schools
communities
program
reprinted
app
accord
application
reprinted
app
application
reprinted
app
tenth
circuit
observed
without
demonstrated
drug
abuse
problem
among
group
tested
efficacy
district
solution
perceived
problem
greatly
diminished
school
district
cites
treasury
employees
von
raab
permitted
random
drug
testing
customs
agents
absent
perceived
drug
problem
among
customs
employees
given
drug
abuse
one
serious
problems
confronting
society
today
see
also
skinner
railway
labor
executives
upholding
random
drug
alcohol
testing
railway
employees
based
upon
rather
evidence
drug
alcohol
problems
tests
von
raab
railway
labor
executives
however
installed
avoid
enormous
risks
lives
limbs
others
dominantly
response
health
risks
users
invariably
present
case
drug
use
see
von
raab
von
raab
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read
unique
context
vernonia
tecumseh
districts
confront
drug
problems
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magnitudes
also
chose
different
solutions
vernonia
limited
policy
athletes
tecumseh
indiscriminately
subjected
testing
participants
competitive
extracurricular
activities
urging
safety
interest
furthered
drug
testing
undoubtedly
substantial
children
athletes
nonathletes
alike
ante
cuts
element
essential
vernonia
judgment
citing
medical
literature
effects
combining
illicit
drug
use
physical
exertion
vernonia
emphasized
particular
drugs
screened
vernonia
policy
demonstrated
pose
substantial
physical
risks
athletes
kennedy
concurring
vernonia
policy
goal
eterring
drug
use
nation
schoolchildren
particularly
risk
immediate
physical
harm
drug
user
playing
sport
particularly
quoting
vernonia
margins
course
policy
random
drug
testing
perfectly
tailored
harms
seeks
address
school
district
cites
dangers
faced
members
band
must
perform
extremely
precise
routines
heavy
equipment
instruments
close
proximity
students
future
farmers
america
required
individually
control
restrain
animals
large
pounds
brief
petitioners
part
acknowledges
linebacker
faces
greater
risk
serious
injury
takes
field
influence
drugs
drummer
halftime
band
parries
risk
injury
student
influence
drugs
playing
golf
cross
country
volleyball
sports
covered
policy
vernonia
scarcely
greater
risk
injury
student
handling
steer
future
farmers
america
members
working
cutlery
sharp
instruments
future
homemakers
america
members
brief
amicus
curiae
one
demur
government
view
risks
drug
use
poses
golfers
cf
pga
tour
martin
golf
low
intensity
activity
golfers
surely
marginal
among
linebackers
sprinters
basketball
players
targeted
testing
vernonia
among
choristers
musicians
members
subject
urinalysis
notwithstanding
nightmarish
images
flatware
livestock
run
amok
colliding
tubas
disturbing
peace
quiet
tecumseh
great
majority
students
school
district
seeks
test
truth
engaged
activities
safety
sensitive
unusual
degree
difference
imperfect
tailoring
tailoring
vernonia
district
sum
two
good
reasons
testing
athletes
sports
team
members
faced
special
health
risks
leaders
drug
culture
vernonia
similar
reason
tenable
justification
explains
tecumseh
decision
target
testing
participants
every
competitive
extracurricular
activity
see
chandler
drug
testing
candidates
office
held
incompatible
fourth
amendment
program
well
designed
identify
candidates
violate
antidrug
laws
nationwide
students
participate
extracurricular
activities
significantly
less
likely
develop
substance
abuse
problems
peers
see
zill
nord
loomis
adolescent
time
use
risky
behavior
outcomes
tenth
graders
reported
spending
time
activities
percent
likely
used
drugs
spent
hours
per
week
activities
even
students
might
deterred
drug
use
order
preserve
extracurricular
eligibility
least
likely
students
might
forgo
extracurricular
involvement
order
avoid
detection
drug
use
tecumseh
policy
thus
falls
short
doubly
deterrence
aim
invades
privacy
students
need
deterrence
least
risks
steering
students
greatest
risk
substance
abuse
away
extracurricular
involvement
potentially
may
palliate
drug
summarize
case
resembles
vernonia
school
districts
cases
conditioned
engagement
activities
outside
obligatory
curriculum
random
subjection
urinalysis
defining
characteristics
two
programs
however
entirely
dissimilar
vernonia
district
sought
test
subpopulation
students
distinguished
reduced
expectation
privacy
special
susceptibility
injury
heavy
involvement
drug
use
tecumseh
district
seeks
test
much
larger
population
associated
none
factors
moreover
without
carefully
safeguarding
student
confidentiality
without
regard
program
untoward
effects
program
sweeping
sheltered
vernonia
unreasonable
reach
renders
impermissible
fourth
amendment
ii
chandler
inspected
georgia
requirement
candidates
state
office
pass
drug
test
held
requirement
id
fit
within
closely
guarded
category
constitutionally
permissible
suspicionless
searches
georgia
testing
prescription
record
showed
responded
concrete
danger
supported
evidence
particular
problem
targeted
group
involved
tasks
concluded
left
close
review
georgia
scheme
image
state
seeks
project
requiring
candidates
public
office
submit
drug
testing
georgia
displays
commitment
struggle
drug
abuse
need
revealed
short
symbolic
special
term
draws
meaning
case
law
ibid
close
review
tecumseh
policy
compels
similar
conclusion
policy
shown
advance
special
needs
existing
public
school
context
maintain
swift
informal
disciplinary
procedures
order
schools
vernonia
internal
quotation
marks
omitted
see
supra
left
school
district
undoubted
purpose
heighten
awareness
abhorrence
strong
stand
drug
abuse
desire
augment
communication
message
trump
right
persons
even
children
within
schoolhouse
gate
secure
persons
unreasonable
searches
seizures
amdt
chandler
referred
pathmarking
dissenting
opinion
justice
brandeis
recognized
importance
teaching
example
government
potent
omnipresent
teacher
good
ill
teaches
whole
people
example
wisdom
guide
decisionmakers
instant
case
government
nowhere
teacher
runs
public
school
sad
irony
petitioning
school
district
seeks
justify
edict
trumpeting
schools
custodial
tutelary
responsibility
children
vernonia
reasons
stated
affirm
judgment
tenth
circuit
declaring
testing
policy
issue
unconstitutional
footnotes
district
noted
school
district
allegations
concerning
daniel
james
called
standing
sue
question
failing
grades
made
ineligible
participate
interscholastic
competition
see
supp
wd
noted
however
dispute
need
resolved
lindsay
earls
standing
therefore
required
address
constitutionality
drug
testing
policy
see
ibid
likewise
satisfied
earls
standing
need
address
whether
james
also
standing
respondents
challenge
policy
either
applies
athletes
provides
drug
testing
upon
reasonable
individualized
suspicion
see
app
justice
ginsburg
argues
vernonia
school
dist
acton
depended
fact
drug
testing
program
applied
student
athletes
even
passage
cited
dissent
manifests
supplemental
nature
factor
vernonia
stated
egitimate
privacy
expectations
even
less
regard
student
athletes
see
post
citing
vernonia
emphasis
added
upholding
drug
testing
program
vernonia
considered
school
context
entral
significant
element
hefty
weight
side
school
balance
applies
similar
force
case
even
though
undertake
separate
balancing
regard
particular
program
justice
ginsburg
observations
regard
extracurricular
activities
apply
equal
force
athletics
see
post
participation
extracurricular
activities
key
component
school
life
essential
reality
students
applying
college
participants
significant
contributor
breadth
quality
educational
experience
instance
number
graders
using
illicit
drug
increased
percent
percent
number
graders
reporting
used
marijuana
jumped
percent
percent
period
see
department
health
human
services
monitoring
future
national
results
adolescent
drug
use
overview
key
findings
table
footnotes
according
tecumseh
choir
teacher
choir
participants
chose
wear
choir
uniforms
school
days
competitions
change
either
rest
room
building
bus
figured
change
without
anyone
see
anything
appellants
app
finds
sufficient
evidence
drug
use
tecumseh
schools
articulate
threshold
level
drug
use
suffice
justify
drug
testing
program
schoolchildren
refuse
fashion
effect
constitutional
quantum
drug
use
necessary
show
drug
problem
ante
one
need
establish
constitutional
quantum
drug
use
recognize
relevance
superintendent
reports
characterizing
drug
use
among
tecumseh
students
major
proble
app
runners
volleyball
players
contrast
engage
substantial
physical
exertion
see
vernonia
school
dist
acton
describing
special
dangers
combining
drug
use
athletics
generally
notes
programs
individualized
suspicion
unlike
using
random
testing
might
unfairly
target
members
unpopular
groups
ante
see
also
ante
breyer
concurring
assuming
arguendo
school
district
exchanged
individualized
suspicion
random
testing
installed
random
testing
addition
rather
lieu
testing
time
reasonable
suspicion
app