katzenbach
morgan
argued
april
decided
june
together
new
york
city
board
elections
morgan
et
also
appeal
appellees
registered
voters
new
york
city
brought
suit
challenge
constitutionality
voting
rights
act
extent
provision
prohibits
enforcement
statutory
requirement
literacy
english
applied
numerous
new
york
city
residents
puerto
rico
requirement
previously
denied
right
vote
section
provides
person
completed
sixth
grade
public
school
accredited
private
school
puerto
rico
language
instruction
english
shall
disfranchised
inability
read
write
english
district
granted
appellees
declaratory
injunctive
relief
holding
enacting
congress
exceeded
powers
held
section
proper
exercise
powers
fourteenth
amendment
virtue
supremacy
clause
new
york
english
literacy
requirement
enforced
extent
conflicts
pp
though
power
fix
voting
qualifications
contrary
fourteenth
amendment
constitutional
provision
congress
power
fourteenth
amendment
enact
legislation
prohibiting
enforcement
state
law
limited
situations
state
law
adjudged
violate
provisions
amendment
congress
sought
enforce
therefore
task
determine
whether
new
york
english
literacy
requirement
applied
violates
equal
protection
clause
whether
prohibition
requirement
appropriate
legislation
enforce
clause
lassiter
northampton
election
distinguished
pp
section
fourteenth
amendment
positive
grant
legislative
power
authorizing
congress
exercise
discretion
determining
need
nature
legislation
secure
fourteenth
amendment
guarantees
test
mcculloch
maryland
wheat
applied
determine
whether
congressional
enactment
appropriate
legislation
fourteenth
amendment
pp
section
enacted
enforce
equal
protection
clause
measure
secure
nondiscriminatory
treatment
government
numerous
puerto
ricans
residing
new
york
imposition
voting
qualifications
provision
administration
governmental
services
pp
congress
adequate
basis
deciding
plainly
adapted
end
pp
section
invidiously
discriminate
violation
fifth
amendment
failure
extend
relief
educated
flag
schools
reform
measure
invalid
congress
might
gone
eliminate
evils
time
pp
solicitor
general
marshall
argued
cause
appellants
brief
assistant
attorney
general
doar
ralph
spritzer
louis
claiborne
john
barrett
louis
kauder
lee
rankin
argued
cause
appellant
brief
norman
redlich
seymour
quel
alfred
avins
argued
cause
filed
brief
appellees
cases
rafael
hernandez
colon
attorney
general
argued
cause
filed
brief
commonwealth
puerto
rico
amicus
curiae
urging
reversal
jean
coon
assistant
attorney
general
argued
cause
state
new
york
amicus
curiae
urging
affirmance
brief
louis
lefkowitz
attorney
general
ruth
kessler
toch
acting
solicitor
general
justice
brennan
delivered
opinion
cases
concern
constitutionality
voting
rights
act
law
respects
pertinent
cases
provides
person
successfully
completed
sixth
primary
grade
public
school
private
school
accredited
commonwealth
puerto
rico
language
instruction
english
shall
denied
right
vote
election
inability
read
write
english
appellees
registered
voters
new
york
city
brought
suit
challenge
constitutionality
insofar
pro
tanto
prohibits
enforcement
election
laws
new
york
requiring
ability
read
write
english
condition
voting
laws
many
several
hundred
thousand
new
york
city
residents
migrated
commonwealth
puerto
rico
previously
denied
right
vote
appellees
attack
insofar
enable
many
citizens
vote
pursuant
voting
rights
act
appellees
commenced
proceeding
district
district
columbia
seeking
declaration
invalid
injunction
prohibiting
appellants
attorney
general
new
york
city
board
elections
either
enforcing
complying
district
designated
upon
cross
motions
summary
judgment
one
judge
dissenting
granted
declaratory
injunctive
relief
appellees
sought
held
enacting
congress
exceeded
powers
granted
constitution
therefore
usurped
powers
reserved
tenth
amendment
supp
appeals
taken
directly
ed
noted
probable
jurisdiction
reverse
hold
application
challenged
cases
proper
exercise
powers
granted
congress
fourteenth
amendment
force
supremacy
clause
article
vi
new
york
english
literacy
requirement
enforced
extent
inconsistent
distribution
powers
effected
constitution
establish
qualifications
voting
state
officers
qualifications
established
voting
members
numerous
branch
state
legislature
also
determine
may
vote
representatives
senators
art
seventeenth
amendment
ex
parte
yarbrough
course
power
grant
withhold
franchise
conditions
forbidden
fourteenth
amendment
provision
constitution
exercises
state
power
immune
limitations
fourteenth
amendment
state
action
equal
protection
clause
held
forbid
state
laws
restrict
right
vote
attorney
general
state
new
york
argues
exercise
congressional
power
fourteenth
amendment
prohibits
enforcement
state
law
sustained
judicial
branch
determines
state
law
prohibited
provisions
amendment
congress
sought
enforce
specifically
urges
sustained
appropriate
legislation
enforce
equal
protection
clause
unless
judiciary
decides
even
guidance
congressional
judgment
application
english
literacy
requirement
prohibited
forbidden
equal
protection
clause
disagree
neither
language
history
supports
construction
said
regard
ex
parte
virginia
power
congress
enlarged
congress
authorized
enforce
prohibitions
appropriate
legislation
legislation
contemplated
make
amendments
fully
effective
construction
require
judicial
determination
enforcement
state
law
precluded
congress
violated
amendment
condition
sustaining
congressional
enactment
depreciate
congressional
resourcefulness
congressional
responsibility
implementing
amendment
confine
legislative
power
context
insignificant
role
abrogating
state
laws
judicial
branch
prepared
adjudge
unconstitutional
merely
informing
judgment
judiciary
particularizing
majestic
generalities
amendment
see
fay
new
york
thus
task
case
determine
whether
new
york
english
literacy
requirement
applied
deny
right
vote
person
successfully
completed
sixth
grade
puerto
rican
school
violates
equal
protection
clause
accordingly
decision
lassiter
northampton
election
sustaining
north
carolina
english
literacy
requirement
circumstances
prohibited
first
sections
fourteenth
fifteenth
amendments
inapposite
compare
also
guinn
camacho
doe
misc
aff
camacho
rogers
supp
lassiter
present
question
us
without
regard
whether
judiciary
find
equal
protection
clause
nullifies
new
york
english
literacy
requirement
applied
congress
prohibit
enforcement
state
law
legislating
fourteenth
amendment
answering
question
task
limited
determining
whether
legislation
required
appropriate
legislation
enforce
equal
protection
clause
including
draftsmen
sought
grant
congress
specific
provision
applicable
fourteenth
amendment
broad
powers
expressed
necessary
proper
clause
art
cl
classic
formulation
reach
powers
established
chief
justice
marshall
mcculloch
maryland
wheat
let
end
legitimate
let
within
scope
constitution
means
appropriate
plainly
adapted
end
prohibited
consist
letter
spirit
constitution
constitutional
whatever
legislation
appropriate
adapted
carry
objects
amendments
view
whatever
tends
enforce
submission
prohibitions
contain
secure
persons
enjoyment
perfect
equality
civil
rights
equal
protection
laws
state
denial
invasion
prohibited
brought
within
domain
congressional
power
therefore
proceed
consideration
whether
appropriate
legislation
enforce
equal
protection
clause
mcculloch
maryland
standard
whether
may
regarded
enactment
enforce
equal
protection
clause
whether
plainly
adapted
end
whether
prohibited
consistent
letter
spirit
constitution
doubt
may
regarded
enactment
enforce
equal
protection
clause
congress
explicitly
declared
enacted
secure
rights
fourteenth
amendment
persons
educated
schools
predominant
classroom
language
english
persons
referred
include
migrated
commonwealth
puerto
rico
new
york
denied
right
vote
inability
read
write
english
fourteenth
amendment
rights
referred
include
emanating
equal
protection
clause
specifically
may
viewed
measure
secure
puerto
rican
community
residing
new
york
nondiscriminatory
treatment
government
imposition
voting
qualifications
provision
administration
governmental
services
public
schools
public
housing
law
enforcement
section
may
readily
seen
plainly
adapted
furthering
aims
equal
protection
clause
practical
effect
prohibit
new
york
denying
right
vote
large
segments
puerto
rican
community
congress
thus
prohibited
state
denying
community
right
preservative
rights
yick
wo
hopkins
enhanced
political
power
helpful
gaining
nondiscriminatory
treatment
public
services
entire
puerto
rican
community
section
thereby
enables
puerto
rican
minority
better
obtain
perfect
equality
civil
rights
equal
protection
laws
well
within
congressional
authority
say
need
puerto
rican
minority
vote
warranted
federal
intrusion
upon
state
interests
served
english
literacy
requirement
congress
branch
made
judgment
assess
weigh
various
conflicting
considerations
risk
pervasiveness
discrimination
governmental
services
effectiveness
eliminating
state
restriction
right
vote
means
dealing
evil
adequacy
availability
alternative
remedies
nature
significance
state
interests
affected
nullification
english
literacy
requirement
applied
residents
successfully
completed
sixth
grade
puerto
rican
school
us
review
congressional
resolution
factors
enough
able
perceive
basis
upon
congress
might
resolve
conflict
plainly
basis
support
application
question
case
contrary
conclusion
require
us
blind
realities
familiar
legislators
result
different
confine
inquiry
question
whether
merely
legislation
aimed
elimination
invidious
discrimination
establishing
voter
qualifications
told
new
york
english
literacy
requirement
originated
desire
provide
incentive
speaking
immigrants
learn
english
language
order
assure
intelligent
exercise
franchise
yet
congress
might
well
questioned
light
many
exemptions
provided
evidence
suggesting
prejudice
played
prominent
role
enactment
requirement
whether
actually
interests
served
congress
might
also
questioned
whether
denial
right
deemed
precious
fundamental
society
necessary
appropriate
means
encouraging
persons
learn
english
furthering
goal
intelligent
exercise
franchise
finally
congress
might
well
concluded
means
furthering
intelligent
exercise
franchise
ability
read
understand
spanish
effective
ability
read
english
newspapers
radio
television
programs
available
inform
election
issues
governmental
affairs
since
congress
undertook
legislate
preclude
enforcement
state
law
context
general
appraisal
literacy
requirements
voting
see
south
carolina
katzenbach
supra
brought
specially
informed
legislative
competence
congress
prerogative
weigh
competing
considerations
enough
perceive
basis
upon
congress
might
predicate
judgment
application
new
york
english
literacy
requirement
deny
right
vote
person
sixth
grade
education
puerto
rican
schools
language
instruction
english
constituted
invidious
discrimination
violation
equal
protection
clause
remains
question
whether
congressional
remedies
adopted
constitute
means
prohibited
consistent
letter
spirit
constitution
respect
appellees
contend
fails
regard
section
works
invidious
discrimination
violation
fifth
amendment
prohibiting
enforcement
english
literacy
requirement
educated
schools
schools
located
within
jurisdiction
language
instruction
english
educated
schools
beyond
territorial
limits
language
instruction
also
english
complaint
congress
enacting
unconstitutionally
denied
diluted
anyone
right
vote
rather
congress
violated
constitution
extending
relief
effected
educated
schools
need
pause
determine
whether
appellees
sufficient
personal
interest
invalidated
ground
see
generally
raines
since
argument
view
falls
merits
section
restrict
deny
franchise
effect
extends
franchise
persons
otherwise
denied
state
law
thus
need
decide
whether
state
literacy
law
conditioning
right
vote
achieving
certain
level
education
school
regardless
language
instruction
discriminates
invidiously
educated
schools
need
decide
whether
challenged
limitation
relief
effected
permissible
deciding
question
principle
calls
closest
scrutiny
distinctions
laws
denying
fundamental
rights
see
supra
inapplicable
distinction
challenged
appellees
presented
limitation
reform
measure
aimed
eliminating
existing
barrier
exercise
franchise
rather
deciding
constitutional
propriety
limitations
reform
measure
guided
familiar
principles
statute
invalid
constitution
might
gone
farther
roschen
ward
legislature
need
strike
evils
time
semler
dental
examiners
reform
may
take
one
step
time
addressing
phase
problem
seems
acute
legislative
mind
williamson
lee
optical
guided
principles
satisfied
appellees
challenge
limitation
without
merit
context
case
us
congressional
choice
limit
relief
effected
may
example
reflect
congress
greater
familiarity
quality
instruction
schools
recognition
unique
historic
relationship
congress
commonwealth
puerto
rico
awareness
federal
government
acceptance
desirability
use
spanish
language
instruction
commonwealth
schools
fact
congress
fostered
policies
encouraging
migration
commonwealth
occasion
determine
case
whether
factors
justify
similar
distinction
embodied
law
denied
franchise
persons
educated
schools
hold
limitation
relief
effected
constitute
forbidden
discrimination
since
factors
might
well
basis
decision
congress
go
farther
therefore
conclude
application
challenged
case
appropriate
legislation
enforce
equal
protection
clause
judgment
district
must
hereby
reversed
footnotes
congress
hereby
declares
secure
rights
fourteenth
amendment
persons
educated
schools
predominant
classroom
language
english
necessary
prohibit
conditioning
right
vote
persons
ability
read
write
understand
interpret
matter
english
language
person
demonstrates
successfully
completed
sixth
primary
grade
public
school
private
school
accredited
state
territory
district
columbia
commonwealth
puerto
rico
predominant
classroom
language
english
shall
denied
right
vote
federal
state
local
election
inability
read
write
understand
interpret
matter
english
language
except
state
law
provides
different
level
education
presumptive
literacy
shall
demonstrate
successfully
completed
equivalent
level
education
public
school
private
school
accredited
state
territory
district
columbia
commonwealth
puerto
rico
predominant
classroom
language
english
stat
supp
article
ii
new
york
constitution
provides
pertinent
part
notwithstanding
foregoing
provisions
january
first
one
thousand
nine
hundred
person
shall
become
entitled
vote
attaining
majority
naturalization
otherwise
unless
person
also
able
except
physical
disability
read
write
english
case
person
became
entitled
vote
state
attaining
majority
naturalization
otherwise
january
first
nineteen
hundred
person
must
addition
foregoing
provisions
able
except
physical
disability
read
write
english
new
voter
within
meaning
article
person
entitled
vote
state
shall
become
entitled
january
first
nineteen
hundred
already
voted
general
election
state
new
york
making
proof
ability
read
write
english
manner
provided
section
one
hundred
board
regents
state
new
york
shall
make
provisions
giving
literacy
tests
new
voter
may
present
evidence
literacy
certificate
diploma
showing
completed
work
including
sixth
grade
approved
elementary
school
approved
higher
school
english
language
instruction
certificate
diploma
showing
completed
work
including
sixth
grade
public
school
private
school
accredited
commonwealth
puerto
rico
school
instruction
carried
predominantly
english
language
matriculation
card
issued
college
university
student
institution
certificate
letter
signed
official
university
college
certifying
attendance
limitation
appellees
challenge
thus
scope
inquiry
distort
primary
intent
measure
sponsored
senate
senators
javits
kennedy
house
representatives
gilbert
ryan
new
york
explicit
purpose
dealing
disenfranchisement
large
segments
puerto
rican
population
new
york
throughout
congressional
debate
repeatedly
acknowledged
particular
reference
puerto
rican
population
new
york
situation
almost
exclusive
subject
discussion
see
cong
rec
see
also
voting
rights
hearings
subcommittee
house
committee
judiciary
solicitor
general
informs
us
brief
probability
practical
effect
limited
enfranchising
educated
puerto
rican
schools
advises
us
aside
schools
commonwealth
puerto
rico
public
parochial
schools
territorial
limits
predominant
language
instruction
english
generally
attended
persons
otherwise
qualified
vote
save
lack
literacy
english
section
provides
pertinent
part
district
district
columbia
shall
jurisdiction
issue
restraining
order
temporary
permanent
injunction
enforcement
provision
act
action
federal
officer
employee
pursuant
hereto
stat
supp
section
congress
shall
power
enforce
appropriate
legislation
provisions
article
therefore
unnecessary
us
consider
whether
sustained
exercise
power
territorial
clause
art
iv
see
dissenting
opinion
judge
mcgowan
measure
discharge
certain
treaty
obligations
see
treaty
paris
stat
nations
charter
articles
art
cl
need
consider
whether
sustained
insofar
relates
election
federal
officers
exercise
congressional
power
art
see
minor
happersett
wall
classic
literacy
tests
voter
requirements
federal
state
elections
hearings
subcommittee
constitutional
rights
senate
committee
judiciary
brief
attorney
general
whether
sustained
insofar
relates
election
state
officers
exercise
congressional
power
enforce
clause
guaranteeing
state
republican
form
government
art
iv
art
cl
harper
virginia
board
elections
carrington
rash
see
also
mississippi
louisiana
lassiter
northampton
election
pope
williams
minor
happersett
wall
cf
burns
richardson
ante
reynolds
sims
historical
evidence
suggesting
sponsors
supporters
amendment
primarily
interested
augmenting
power
congress
rather
judiciary
see
generally
frantz
congressional
power
enforce
fourteenth
amendment
private
acts
yale
harris
quest
equality
tenbroek
antislavery
origins
fourteenth
amendment
senator
howard
introducing
proposed
amendment
senate
described
direct
affirmative
delegation
power
congress
added
casts
upon
congress
responsibility
seeing
future
sections
amendment
carried
good
faith
state
infringes
rights
persons
property
look
upon
clause
indispensable
reason
thus
imposes
upon
congress
power
duty
enables
congress
case
shall
enact
laws
conflict
principles
amendment
correct
legislation
formal
congressional
enactment
cong
globe
fact
earlier
drafts
proposed
amendment
employed
necessary
proper
terminology
describe
scope
congressional
power
amendment
see
tenbroek
antislavery
origins
fourteenth
amendment
substitution
appropriate
legislation
formula
never
thought
effect
diminishing
scope
congressional
power
see
cong
globe
app
representative
bingham
principal
draftsman
amendment
earlier
proposals
contrary
suggestion
dissent
post
grant
congress
power
exercise
discretion
direction
enact
statutes
effect
dilute
equal
protection
due
process
decisions
emphasize
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new
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constitution
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ii
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provisions
reproduced
opinion
ante
pp
fifteenth
amendment
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