chisom roemer argued april decided june together roemer governor louisiana et al also certiorari louisiana consists seven members two elected one district remainder elected districts petitioners represent class black registered voters orleans parish largest four parishes district contains half district registered voters although orleans parish registered voters black voters three parishes white petitioners filed action district respondents governor state officials alleging method electing justices district impermissibly dilutes minority voting strength violation inter alia voting rights act amended prohibits imposition voting qualification prerequisite standard practice procedure results denial abridgement right vote account race color test determining legality practice whether based totality circumstances minority voters less opportunity members electorate participate political process elect representatives choice emphasis added petitioner subsequently intervened support petitioners claims district ultimately ruled petitioners merits however appeals finally remanded case directions dismiss complaint light earlier en banc decision league latin american citizens council clements lulac judicial elections covered act amended distinguished claims involving opportunity participate political process claims involving opportunity elect representatives minority voters choice holding applied judicial elections respect claims first category judges representatives use term excludes judicial elections claims second category held judicial elections covered amended pp originally enacted coextensive fifteenth amendment undisputed applied judicial elections amendment expanded protection adopting results test thus eliminating requirement proof discriminatory intent necessary prove violation adding provides guidance apply test congress also intended exclude judicial elections made intent explicit statute identified mentioned amendment unusually extensive legislative history pp results test applicable claims statutory text cases foreclose lulac reading word representatives placed limit coverage judicial elections exclude claims involving elections statute requires claims must allege abridgement opportunity participate political process elect representatives one choice thus rather creating two separate distinct rights statute identifies two inextricably linked elements plaintiff burden proof see white regester pp word representatives describes winners representative popular elections including elected judges although lulac correctly noted judges need elected seems reasonable realistic characterize winners representatives districts reside run legislative history provides support arguments term representatives includes legislative executive officials congress chosen word candidates intended apply vote dilution prohibition judicial elections pp adopting respondents view coverage lead anomalous result state covered act precluded implementing new voting procedure discriminatory effects respect judicial elections clark roemer similarly discriminatory system already place challenged rule inapplicable judicial elections wells edwards mean judicial elections entirely immune vote dilution claims wells rejected constitutional claim thus relevance correct interpretation statute enacted provide additional protection voting rights adequately protected constitution cf city rome pp stevens delivered opinion white marshall blackmun souter joined scalia filed dissenting opinion rehnquist kennedy joined post kennedy filed dissenting opinion post solicitor general starr argued cause briefs assistant attorney general dunne deputy solicitor general roberts deputy assistant attorney general clegg paul larkin jessica dunsay silver mark gross pamela karlan argued cause petitioners briefs julius levonne chambers charles stephens ralston dayna cunningham ronald wilson lani guinier william quigley roy rodney robert pugh argued cause respondents cases brief william guste attorney general louisiana truman woodward moise dennery christovich special assistant attorneys general robert pugh fn briefs amici curiae urging reversal filed lawyers committee civil rights law et al frank parker robert mcduff brenda wright robert mullen david tatel norman redlich laughlin mcdonald neil bradley kathleen wilde mary wyckoff samuel rabinove richard foltin antonia hernandez judith justice orleans david gelfand terry allbritton john keller ira middleberg darleen jacobs jacobs pro se brian beckwith briefs amici curiae urging affirmance filed state george michael bowers attorney general carol atha cosgrove assistant attorney general david walbert pacific legal foundation ronald zumbrun anthony caso washington legal foundation et al daniel popeo paul kamenar edwin hendricks filed brief american judication society amicus curiae justice stevens delivered opinion preamble voting rights act establishes central purpose act enforce fifteenth amendment constitution fifteenth amendment provides right citizens vote shall denied abridged state account race color previous condition servitude amdt petitioners represent class approximately black registered voters orleans parish louisiana app brought action governor state officials respondents challenge method electing justices louisiana new orleans area petitioner intervened support claims advanced plaintiff class louisiana consists seven justices five elected five districts two elected one district seven members must resident district elected must resided least two years prior election app pet cert justices louisiana serves term years one district first district consists parishes orleans bernard plaquemines jefferson orleans parish contains half population first district half registered voters district chisom edwards registered voters orleans parish black whereas registered voters three parishes white app petitioners allege present method electing two justices louisiana new orleans area impermissibly dilutes minority voting strength violation voting rights act furthermore petitioners claimed courts current electoral system within first district violates fourteenth fifteenth amendments federal constitution purpose effect election practice dilute minimize cancel voting strength black voters orleans parish ibid petitioners seek remedy divide first district two districts one orleans parish second three parishes remedy adopted seven members louisiana represent separate judicial district two new districts approximately population according petitioners new orleans parish district also majority black population majority black voter registration district granted respondents motion dismiss complaint chisom edwards ed la held constitutional claims insufficient complaint adequately allege specific intent discriminate respect statutory claim held violated unless abridgement minority voters opportunity elect representatives choice concluded judges representatives judicial elections covered appeals fifth circuit reversed chisom edwards cert denied sub nom roemer chisom beginning analysis remarked particularly significant black person ever elected louisiana either first district one five judicial districts agreeing recently announced opinion mallory eyrich noted broad definition terms voting vote original act expressly included judicial elections within coverage also recognized congress explicit intent expand coverage enacting amendment consistent congress efforts broaden coverage act rejected state contention term representatives amendment used word limitation describing state position untenable instead concluded representative denotes anyone selected chosen popular election among field candidates fill office including judges ibid quoting martin allain sd miss buttressed interpretation noting section section virtually companion sections operate tandem prohibit discriminatory practices voting whether practices originate past present future also gleaned support construction fact attorney general consistently supported expansive restrictive construction act ibid finally held constitutional allegations sufficient warrant trial reinstated claims case remanded district filed complaint intervention alleged use district elect two members louisiana standard practice procedure results denial abridgment right vote account race color violation section voting rights act app nonjury trial however district concluded evidence establish violation standards set forth thornburg gingles app pet cert district also dismissed constitutional claims petitioners appealed appeal pending fifth circuit sitting en banc another case held judicial elections covered act amended league latin american citizens council clements hereinafter lulac majority lulac concluded congress use word representatives phrase elect representatives choice act indicated congress intend authorize vote dilution claims judicial elections en banc panel reached conclusion considering precise language amendment character judicial office special emphasis cardinal reason judges need elected fact rule held inapplicable judicial elections precise language lulac majority focused provides violation established members protected class less opportunity members electorate participate political process elect representatives choice quoting majority view factually false characterize judges representatives public opinion irrelevant judge role judiciary serves representative function whatever judge represents one majority concluded judicial offices representative ones occupants representatives thus congress used word representatives act intended subsection apply vote dilution claims judicial elections majority also assumed congress familiar wells edwards md la summarily aff reapportionment case district held concept apportionment apply judicial branch government express reference senate report fact principle right vote denied abridged dilution voting strength derives reapportionment case reynolds sims lulac quoting persuaded majority light case law holding judges representatives context reapportionment cases see lulac citing cases congress authorized vote dilution claims judicial elections without making express unambiguous statement effect following en banc decision lulac appeals remanded case district directions dismiss complaint app pet cert per curiam expressed opinion strength petitioners evidentiary case granted certiorari set case argument lulac see post ii decision today limited character thus useful begin identifying certain matters dispute constitutional claims us unlike wells edwards white regester mobile bolden case presents us solely question statutory construction question involves scope coverage voting rights act amended therefore address question concerning elements must proved establish violation act remedy might appropriate redress violation proved also undisputed applied judicial elections prior amendment amended statute continues apply judicial elections see clark roemer moreover question terms standard practice procedure broad enough encompass use districts minimize racial minority ability influence outcome election covered matter dispute whether test determining legality practice added statute applies judicial elections well elections iii text voting rights act originally enacted read follows sec voting qualification prerequisite voting standard practice procedure shall imposed applied state political subdivision deny abridge right citizen vote account race color stat time passage voting rights act unlike provisions act provoke significant debate congress viewed largely restatement fifteenth amendment see code cong pp grants right free enactment enforcement voting qualifications practices deny abridge right vote account race color see also pt pp took similar view mobile bolden recognized coverage provided unquestionably coextensive coverage provided fifteenth amendment provision simply elaborated upon fifteenth amendment ibid section protected right vote without making distinctions imposing limitations elections fall within purview attorney general katzenbach made clear testimony house election registered electors permitted vote covered act made unlawful deny abridge right vote account race color stat congress amended expanding original prohibition discrimination account race color include speaking groups replacing race color race color contravention guarantees set forth section act stat amendment expanded protection afforded justice stewart opinion plurality mobile bolden supra held violation either fifteenth amendment voting rights act absent proof intentional discrimination served impetus amendment one year decision mobile chairman rodino house judiciary committee introduced bill extend voting rights act bilingual requirements amend striking deny abridge substituting manner results denial abridgment results test proposed chairman rodino incorporated ultimately amendment focal point litigation amended statute proof intent longer required prove violation plaintiffs prevail demonstrating challenged election practice resulted denial abridgement right vote based color race congress incorporated results test paragraph formerly constituted entire also designated paragraph subsection added new subsection make clear application results test requires inquiry totality circumstances full text amended reads follows sec voting qualification prerequisite voting standard practice procedure shall imposed applied state political subdivision manner results denial abridgement right citizen vote account race color contravention guarantees set forth section provided subsection violation subsection established based totality circumstances shown political processes leading nomination election state political subdivision equally open participation members class citizens protected subsection members less opportunity members electorate participate political process elect representatives choice extent members protected class elected office state political subdivision one circumstance may considered provided nothing section establishes right members protected class elected numbers equal proportion population stat respondents contend lulac majority agreed congress choice word representatives phrase less opportunity members electorate participate political process elect representatives choice section evidence congressional intent exclude vote dilution claims involving judicial elections coverage reject construction convinced congress intent congress made explicit statute least members identified mentioned point unusually extensive legislative history amendment conclusion confirmed review justifications offered lulac majority respondents support construction statute address main contentions turn iv lulac majority assumed provides two distinct types protection minority voters protects opportunity participate political process opportunity elect representatives choice see lulac although majority interpreted representatives word limitation assumed word eliminated judicial elections latter protection without affecting former words standard practice procedure judicial election limit times polls open disparate impact black voters opportunity cast ballots may challenged even different practice merely affects opportunity elect representatives choice judicial office may reading however foreclosed statutory text prior cases abridgement opportunity members protected class participate political process inevitably impairs ability influence outcome election statute written however inability elect representatives choice sufficient establish violation unless totality circumstances also said members protected class less opportunity participate political process statute create two separate distinct rights subsection covers every application qualification standard practice procedure results denial abridgement right vote singular form also used subsection referring injury members protected class less opportunity others participate political process elect representatives choice emphasis added distort plain meaning sentence substitute word word radical surgery required separate opportunity participate opportunity elect statutory language patterned language used justice white opinions white regester whitcomb chavis see supra opinions identified opportunity participate opportunity elect inextricably linked white regester described connection follows plaintiffs burden produce evidence members less opportunity residents district participate political processes elect legislators choice emphasis added earlier whitcomb chavis described plaintiffs burden entailing showing less opportunity residents participate political processes elect legislators choice emphasis added results test mandated amendment applicable claims arising word representatives place limit coverage act judicial elections exclude claims involving elections protection claims must allege abridgement opportunity participate political process elect representatives one choice even wisdom solomon support lulac majority proposal preserve claims based interference right vote judicial elections eschewing claims based opportunity elect judges authority divide unitary claim created congress respondents lulac majority place principal reliance congress use word representatives instead legislators phrase participate political process elect representatives choice congress borrowed phrase white regester replaced legislators representatives substitution indicates least congress intended amendment cover legislative elections respondents argue majority agreed term representatives used extend coverage executive officials judges think however better reading word representatives describes winners representative popular elections executive officers prosecutors sheriffs state attorneys general state treasurers considered representatives simply chosen popular election reasoning apply elected judges respondents suggest congress intended statute prohibition vote dilution apply election judges used word candidates instead representatives brief respondents confuses ordinary meaning words word representative refers someone prevailed popular election whereas word candidate refers someone seeking office thus candidate nominated elected congress used candidate parts statute precisely referring people aspirants office see candidate office president candidates public office candidate office president candidate office president candidates public party office case offices president ice president vote named candidate candidates office president candidates office president lulac majority course entirely correct observing judges need elected ideally public opinion irrelevant judge role judge often called upon disregard even defy popular sentiment framers constitution similar understanding judicial role consequence established article iii judges appointed rather elected sheltered public opinion receiving life tenure salary protection indeed views generally shared early years republic louisiana however chosen different course decided elect judges compel judicial candidates vie popular support political candidates fundamental tension ideal character judicial office real world electoral politics resolved crediting judges total indifference popular simultaneously requiring run elected office several members must resident separate district must elected voters district seems reasonable realistic characterize winners representatives district indeed one time louisiana bar association characterized members louisiana representatives reason justice judge office shall considered representative judicial district within situated parish residence time election louisiana course exclude judiciary coverage voting rights act changing system judges appointed way enable judges indifferent popular opinion reasons louisiana chosen otherwise precisely reasons appropriate well voting rights act continue apply judicial elections close connection undermines respondents view judicial elections covered section requires certain submit changes voting procedures district district columbia attorney general preclearance section uses language similar defining prohibited practices voting qualification prerequisite voting standard practice procedure respect voting already held applies judicial elections clark roemer apply judicial elections state covered precluded implementing new voting procedure discriminatory effects respect judicial elections whereas similarly discriminatory system already place challenged unlikely congress intended anomalous result vi finally respondents lulac majority suggest judicially manageable standards deciding vote dilution claims fashioned unless standard based principle reason held rule inapplicable judicial elections see wells edwards follows judicial elections entirely immune vote dilution claims conclusion however follow premise holding wells rejected constitutional challenge based equal protection clause fourteenth amendment relevance correct interpretation statute decision mobile bolden also rejected constitutional claim statute enacted protect voting rights adequately protected constitution cf city rome standard applied litigation issue even serious problems lie ahead applying totality circumstances described task difficult may prove justify judicially created limitation coverage broadly worded statute enacted amended congress vii congress enacted voting rights act broad remedial purpose rid ding country racial discrimination voting south carolina katzenbach allen state board elections said act interpreted manner provides broadest possible scope combatting racial discrimination congress amended act order relieve plaintiffs burden proving discriminatory intent plurality concluded original act like fifteenth amendment contained requirement see mobile bolden thus congress made clear violation established proof discriminatory results alone difficult believe congress express effort broaden protection afforded voting rights act withdrew without comment important category elections protection today reject anomalous view hold state judicial elections included within ambit amended judgment appeals reversed case remanded proceedings consistent opinion ordered footnotes section voting rights act amended reads sec voting qualification prerequisite voting standard practice procedure shall imposed applied state political subdivision manner results denial abridgement right citizen vote account race color contravention guarantees set forth section provided subsection violation subsection established based totality circumstances shown political processes leading nomination election state political subdivision equally open participation members class citizens protected subsection members less opportunity members electorate participate political process elect representatives choice extent members protected class elected office state political subdivision one circumstance may considered provided nothing section establishes right members protected class elected numbers equal proportion population stat la art la rev stat ann west la art la rev stat ann west la art la art la rev stat ann west section defines voting vote purposes act sets forth types election practices elections encompassed within regulatory sphere act section terms vote voting shall include action necessary make vote effective primary special general election including limited registration listing pursuant subchapter action required law prerequisite voting casting ballot ballot counted properly included appropriate totals votes cast respect candidates public party office propositions votes received election see clearly judges candidates public party office elected primary special general election therefore section express terms extends state judicial elections truly construction consistent plain language act difficult impossible conceive congress express attempt expand coverage voting rights act fact amended act manner affording minorities less protection racial discrimination provided constitution ection necessarily embraces judicial elections within scope construction section wholly inconsistent plain language act express purpose congress sought attain amending section expand protection act remand trial plaintiffs petitioners moved preliminary injunction enjoining october election one two louisiana seats first district district granted plaintiffs motion found satisfied four elements required injunctive relief chisom edwards ed la appeals however vacated preliminary injunction ordered election proceed scheduled chisom roemer reasoned election enjoined resulting uncertainty deleterious effect louisiana administration justice outweigh potential harm plaintiffs might suffer election went forward petitioners seek review disposition constitutional claims brief petitioners brief tr oral arg md la whether election state justices district violated equal protection clause fourteenth amendment whether population differential among districts established prima facie case invidious discrimination equal protection clause fourteenth amendment whether system municipal elections violated black voters rights fourteenth fifteenth amendments see brief respondents tr oral arg gomillion lightfoot held local act redefining boundaries city tuskegee alabama violated fifteenth amendment opinion justice frankfurter wrote opposite conclusion urged upon us respondents sanction achievement state impairment voting rights whatever long cloaked garb realignment political subdivisions statute alleged worked unconstitutional deprivations petitioners rights immune attack simply mechanism employed legislature redefinition municipal boundaries according allegations made alabama legislature merely redrawn tuskegee city limits incidental inconvenience petitioners accurate say deprived petitioners municipal franchise consequent rights end incidentally changed city boundaries form merely act redefining metes bounds allegations established inescapable human effect essay geometry geography despoil colored citizens colored citizens theretofore enjoyed voting rights hearings proposals enforce amendment constitution subcommittee house committee judiciary stat amendment added new subsection act new subsection reads part follows congress finds voting discrimination citizens language minorities pervasive national scope minority citizens environments dominant language english voting qualification prerequisite voting standard practice procedure shall imposed applied state political subdivision deny abridge right citizen vote member language minority group stat see sess emphasis added objectives amended follows extend present coverage special provisions voting rights act sections amend section act permit individual jurisdictions meet new broadened standard termination coverage special provisions amend language section order clearly establish standards intended congress proving violation section extend provisions act add new section pertaining voting assistance voters blind disabled illiterate amends section voting rights act prohibit voting practice procedure results discrimination amendment designed make clear proof discriminatory intent required establish violation section thereby restores legal standards based controlling precedents applied voting discrimination claims prior litigation involved mobile bolden amendment also adds new subsection section delineates legal standards results test codifying leading vote dilution case white regester new subsection provides issue decided results test whether political processes equally open minority voters new subsection also section establish right proportional representation code cong pp footnotes omitted amendment language section designed make clear plaintiffs need prove discriminatory purpose adoption maintenance challenged system practice order establish violation plaintiffs must either prove intent alternatively must show challenged system practice context circumstances jurisdiction question results minorities denied equal access political process results standard meant restore legal standard governed cases challenging election systems practices illegal dilution minority vote omitted phrase borrowed justice white opinion white regester predates mobile bolden congress explained purpose adding section embod test laid white white said plaintiffs burden produce evidence minority group members less opportunity residents district participate political processes elect legislators choice congress silence regard likened dog bark see doyle silver blaze complete sherlock holmes cf harrison ppg industries rehnquist dissenting case construction legislative language makes sweeping relatively unorthodox change made think judges well detectives may take consideration fact watchdog bark night see also american hospital assn nlrb dissent argues literal reading word leads conclusion small minority protection infringements right participate political process always lack numbers necessary elect candidate post argument however rests erroneous assumption small group voters never influence outcome election see also reynolds sims full effective participation citizens state government requires therefore citizen equally effective voice election members state legislature word representatives rather legislators included senator robert dole compromise designed assuage fears senators viewed house version invitation proportional representation electoral quotas senator dole explained compromise intended embody belief voting practice procedure discriminatory result allowed stand regardless whether exists discriminatory purpose intent delineat legal standard apply results test clarif mandate proportional representation hearings et al subcommittee constitution senate committee judiciary thus compromise intended exclude elections coverage subsection simply make clear results test require proportional election minority candidates election moreover recently recognized judges engage policymaking level see gregory ashcroft post may sufficient appointee position requiring exercise discretion concerning issues public importance certainly describes bench regardless whether judges might considered policymakers sense executive legislature judge brings job interpreting texts judgment best community post concurrence notes justice holmes justice cardozo wrote eloquently policymaking nature judicial function post white concurring part dissenting part concurring judgment see generally winters selection judges historical introduction texas rev financing campaign soliciting votes attempting establish charisma name identification least unseemly judicial candidates business judges indifferent popularity stevens office office chicago bar rec louisiana state law institute project constitution state louisiana notes studies report louisiana bar association submitted louisiana constitutional convention editors project explained included report major issues involved revising judicial provisions present constitution offers many proposals even passage thirty years still merit serious consideration particular interest procedures selection retirement removal judges principle first set forth gray sanders geographical unit representative chosen designated participate election equal vote whatever race whatever sex whatever occupation whatever income wherever home may geographical unit required equal protection clause fourteenth amendment conception political equality declaration independence lincoln gettysburg address fifteenth seventeenth nineteenth amendments mean one thing one person one vote note however analysis proper statutory standard need rely constitutional rule see thornburg gingles concurring judgment see also white regester holding districts invalid notwithstanding compliance rule moreover clark roemer case held applies judicial elections vote dilution case reasoning dissent see post valid led different result case justice scalia chief justice justice kennedy join dissenting section voting rights act weapon judges wield please battle discrimination statute thought adopted regular method interpreting meaning language statute first find ordinary meaning language textual context second using established canons construction ask whether clear indication permissible meaning ordinary one applies especially good reason ordinary meaning appears plain apply ordinary meaning see west virginia university hospitals casey demarest manspeaker ron pair enterprises pennsylvania dept public welfare davenport caminetti public citizen department justice kennedy concurring judgment today however adopts method quite accord usual practice begins statute says expectation statute must mean absent particular phenomena convinced congress intent exclude judges congress made explicit statute least members identified mentioned point unusually extensive legislative history ante emphasis added interprets words statute fulfill expectation finding nothing legislative history affirming judges excluded coverage gives phrase elect representatives quite extraordinary meaning covers election judges method backwards however much may attracted result produces particular case every case resist job begins text congress passed president signed read words text ordinary member congress read see holmes theory legal interpretation harv rev apply meaning determined view reading reveals extends vote dilution claims elections representatives judges representatives suggests amendments voting rights act adopted response decision city mobile bolden held scope original voting rights act coextensive fifteenth amendment thus proscribed intentional discrimination agree original legislation directed towards intentional discrimination applied elections clearly said voting qualification prerequisite voting standard practice procedure shall imposed applied state political subdivision deny abridge right citizen vote account race color stat important error however assumption effect excluding judges revised withdr aw important category elections protection voting rights act ante absolutely question withdrawing protection since content coextensive fifteenth amendment entirety protection subsisted constitution enforced provisions voting rights act nothing lost prior coverage new results protection issue therefore ante whether congress cut back coverage voting rights act issue far extended thus even expectations proper basis interpreting text statute reason expect congress withdrawing protection particular reason expect supplemental protection provided extensive text statute said said respect establishing violation amended following violation established shown political processes leading nomination election equally open participation members protected class members less opportunity members electorate participate political process elect representatives choice emphasis added however rejects thornburg reading statute asserts violation made conditions must met explains statute written inability elect representatives choice sufficient establish violation unless totality circumstances also said members protected class less opportunity participate political process statute create two separate distinct rights distort plain meaning sentence substitute word word radical surgery required separate opportunity participate opportunity elect ante petitioners petitioners amici labored mightily establish meaning representatives include judges see brief lawyers committee civil rights amicus curiae doubt job scavenge world english usage discover whether possible meaning representatives suits preconception statute includes judges job determine whether ordinary meaning includes ask whether solid indication text structure statute something ordinary meaning intended little doubt ordinary meaning representatives include judges see webster second new international dictionary feeble argument contrary representatives means chosen popular election ante hypothesis members baseball teams representatives hardly common even permissible usage surely word representative connotes one elected people also minimum acts behalf people judges sense ordinary sense captions pleadings still display prosecutor represents people judge represents law often requires rule people precisely ordinarily conceive judges representatives held judges within fourteenth amendment requirement one person one vote wells edwards md la aff point state make judges senses representative judges must conceived article iii mold rather giving representatives ordinary meaning ordinary speaker applied word judges see holmes theory legal interpretation harv rev remains ask whether good indication ordinary meaning apply one canon construction might applicable present cases circumstances counter ordinary meaning effect reinforcing applied canon another case term concerning curiously enough issue whether state judges covered provisions federal statute gregory ashcroft post say unless clear term appointee policymaking level include judges construe include since contrary construction cause statute intrude upon structure state government establishing federal qualification state judicial office intrusion said requires plain statement acknowledge see also michigan dept state police atascadero state hospital scanlon pennhurst state school hospital halderman principle applied double reason give representatives ordinary meaning true however gregory interpreting statute include judges made state officials affected whereas question whether judges excluded general imposition upon state elections unquestionably exists gregory questionable whether congress invoking powers fourteenth amendment rather merely commerce clause whereas obvious perhaps factors suffice distinguish two cases moreover tacitly rejected plain statement rule applied unamended city rome though arguably rule developed significance currently content dispense plain statement rule present cases cf pennsylvania union gas opinion scalia says something approach today decision possibility applying rule never crossed mind plain statement rule may applicable assuredly nothing whatever points opposite direction indicating ordinary meaning applied far view ordinary meaning representatives gives clear purpose congressional action otherwise seem pointless initial matter evident congress paid particular attention scope elections covered elect language suggests language part tracked opinions white regester whitcomb chavis word legislators copied significantly replaced general term candidates used repeatedly elsewhere act see term representatives appears nowhere else act except proper noun referring members federal lower house designees attorney general normal meaning term broader legislators includes example school boards city councils well senators representatives narrower candidates says seemingly significant refusal use term candidate selection distinctive term representative really inconsequential candidate used according since candidate refers one nominated yet elected phrase elect candidates contradiction terms ante flaw argument true repeated usage formulation elect candidates amply demonstrates see davis bandemer rogers lodge stevens dissenting mobile bolden jewish organizations williamsburgh carey moore ogilvie allen state board elections even used phrase repeatedly thornburg thornburg gingles concurring judgment opinion stevens phrase used complaint minority plaintiffs case decided today houston lawyers assn attorney general texas post app nos words far impermissible choice candidates natural choice even used repeatedly elsewhere statute quite absurd think congress went way replace term representatives order convey candidates naturally suggests coverage elections representatives naturally second consideration confirms representatives meant ordinary sense given ordinary meaning causes statute reproduce established eminently logical perhaps practically indispensable limitation upon availability vote dilution claims whatever requirements may applicable elections representatives sense elected act behalf electorate elections unlike elections must conducted accordance equal protection principle one person one vote happens coincidentally think every case prior amendment recognized possibility vote dilution claim principle one person one vote applicable see fortson dorsey burns richardson whitcomb chavis supra white regester supra see also davis bandemer supra indeed principle one person one vote gives meaning concept dilution one vote diluted practical effect everyone else course mere fact election practice satisfies constitutional requirement one person one vote establish vote dilution voting rights act purposes since looks merely equality individual votes also equality minority blocs votes white dealt district demonstrates point see also mobile bolden supra one person one vote premise necessary condition vote dilution claim since establishes baseline computing voting strength minority bloc suggested first question dilution case whether one person one vote standard met second whether voting structures nonetheless operate minimize cancel voting strength racial political elements voting population burns richardson supra see also note fair effective voting strength section voting rights act impact thornburg gingles minority vote dilution litigation wayne rev well congress amended held principle one person one vote apply election judges wells edwards md la aff congress use extremely inapt word representatives making vote dilution claims available respect election judges first time extending remedy context one person one vote apply significant change law given need identify baseline computing dilution matter believe barking dogs astounded find unmentioned legislative history representatives given normal meaning hand change law except elimination intent requirement silence entirely understandable frankly find difficult conceive determined whether dilution occurred one eliminated requirement actual intent disfavor minorities principle minority votes throughout state much practical electability effect nonminority votes one begin decide system much elective strength minority bloc assert utterly impossible impose vote dilution restrictions upon electoral regime based one person one vote principle congress define vote dilution whatever within constitutional bounds point one person one vote inherent normal concept vote dilution essential element preexisting judicially crafted definition congress adopt new definition creating new definition seemingly standardless task word congress selected representative seems specifically designed avoid problems stoic difficulty defining dilution without standard purity expressing resolve stand onerous duty inescapably thrust upon even serious problems lie ahead applying totality circumstances described task difficult may prove justify judicially created limitation coverage broadly worded statute enacted amended congress ante one think congress said candidates rather representatives reality however rather congress leads us quite unnecessarily indeed stubborn persistence morass unguided perhaps unguidable judicial interference democratic elections attributes congress intent mean something said also intent let district courts invent precedent one person one vote apply congress consulting world constitutes dilution vote equal finally suggests something anomalous extending coverage voting rights act election judges extending coverage elections ante simply misconceives different roles latter requires certain jurisdictions preclear changes election methods changes implemented means assuring advance absence electoral illegality violates voting rights act violates constitution well view judges within scope nondilution claims thus claims preclearance enforce voting rights act respect judges moreover intentional discrimination election judges whatever form constitutionally prohibited preclearance provision gives government method prevent scheme makes entire sense without need bring judges within elect provision enough convince sense ordinary meaning representative reason congress choice since normal presumption ordinary meaning prevails read extending vote dilution claims elections representatives elections judges claims however resting participate political process provision rather elect provision similar restriction apply since claims exclusively claims dilution affirm judgment fifth circuit thornburg noted plaintiffs allegation redistricting scheme impaired black citizens ability elect representatives choice violation voting rights act see also claim address opinion ability elect representatives choice impaired selection electoral structure explained requirement recovery case minority voters contend form districting violates must prove use electoral structure operates minimize cancel ability elect preferred candidates emphasis added minority voting strength assessed solely terms minority group ability elect candidates prefers approach essence vote dilution claim state created districts unacceptably impair minority group ability elect candidates members prefer emphasis added deleted denies conclusion follows claims rests erroneous assumption small group voters never influence outcome election ante make assumption assume elect statute mean influence assume representatives statute mean judges reject conan doyle method statutory interpretation embrace lewis carroll justice kennedy dissenting join justice scalia dissent full write add issue one statutory construction constitutional validity nothing today decision addresses question whether voting rights act interpreted thornburg gingles consistent requirements constitution