graham county soil water conservation district et al ex rel wilson argued november decided march false claims act fca authorizes attorney general private qui tam relators recover persons make false fraudulent payment claims bars qui tam actions based upon public disclosure allegations transactions inter alia congressional administrative government accounting office gao report hearing audit investigation federal contracts provided two north carolina counties remediate areas damaged flooding federal government shoulder costs respondent wilson employee local government body involved effort alerted local federal officials possible fraud county state issued reports identifying potential irregularities contracts administration subsequently wilson filed qui tam action alleging relevant petitioners county conservation districts local federal officials knowingly submitted false payment claims violation fca district ultimately dismissed lack jurisdiction wilson refuted action based upon allegations publicly disclosed county state reports held administrative reports fca public disclosure bar reversing fourth circuit concluded federal administrative reports may trigger public disclosure bar held reference administrative reports audits investigations encompasses disclosures made state local sources well federal sources pp section specifies three categories disclosures deprive federal courts jurisdiction qui tam suits language issue contained second category category pp fca plain text limit administrative federal sources term modifies report hearing audit investigation provision public disclosure fraud naturally read describe government agency activities since administrative modified federal immediately apparent basis excluding state local agency activities ambit interpretive maxim noscitur sociis word may known company keeps russell motor car support fourth circuit limited view category administrative sandwiched federal terms congressional gao items disparate qualify string statutory terms warren maine bd environmental protection items list beecham noscitur sociis purposes furthermore evaluating administrative within public disclosure bar larger scheme observes category terms sandwiched phrases category criminal civil administrative hearing category news media generally understood include nonfederal sources category contains term administrative issue even category best understood refer adjudicative proceedings category legislative activities state local administrative sources character presumably public likely put federal government notice potential fraud state local administrative hearings adjudicatory character fca overall federal focus shines light specific question whether public disclosure bar extends nonfederal contexts fact state legislative sources included carries clear implications status state administrative sources pp legislative record support exclusively federal interpretation administrative current enacted strike balance encouraging private persons root fraud stifling parasitic lawsuits exactly statute came strike balance uncertain significant substantive changes including introduction administrative category inserted without floor debate discussion technical amendments though congress wanted strengthen government hand fighting false claims cook county ex rel chandler encourage qui tam suits also determined bar subset suits deemed unmeritorious downright harmful question concerns subset precise scope matter record opaque leaving evident legislative purpose guide resolution discrete issue bornstein pp respondent additional arguments favor limiting administrative federal sources unpersuasive pp reversed remanded stevens delivered opinion roberts kennedy thomas ginsburg alito joined scalia joined except part iv scalia filed opinion concurring part concurring judgment sotomayor filed dissenting opinion breyer joined graham county soil water tion district et petitioners ex rel karen wilson writ certiorari appeals fourth circuit march justice stevens delivered opinion since enactment civil war false claims act authorized attorney general private qui tam relators recover persons make false fraudulent claims payment act contains provision barring qui tam actions based upon public disclosure allegations transactions certain specified sources question us whether reference administrative reports audits investigations provision encompasses disclosures made state local sources well federal sources hold department agriculture usda entered contracts two counties north carolina authorizing perform hire others perform cleanup repair work areas suffered extensive flooding federal government agreed shoulder percent contract costs respondent karen wilson time employee graham county soil conservation district government body delegated partial responsibility coordinating performing remediation effort suspecting possible fraud connection effort wilson voiced concerns local officials summer also sent letter meeting agents usda graham county officials began investigation accounting firm hired county performed audit issued report audit report identified several potential irregularities county administration contracts shortly thereafter north carolina department environment health natural resources issued report dehnr report identifying similar problems usda office inspector general eventually issued third report contained additional findings wilson filed action alleging petitioners graham county cherokee county soil water conservation districts number local federal officials violated false claims act fca knowingly submitting false claims payment pursuant contracts alleged petitioners retaliated aiding federal investigation false claims following review statute limitations applicable wilson retaliation claim graham county soil water conservation dist ex rel wilson appeals ordered claim dismissed time barred remand district subsequently dismissed wilson qui tam action lack jurisdiction app pet cert found wilson failed refute action based upon allegations publicly disclosed audit report dehnr report reports district determined constituted administrative report audit investigation within meaning fca public disclosure bar appeals reversed judgment district reports generated state local entities nly federal administrative reports audits investigations fourth circuit concluded qualify public disclosures fca emphasis added circuits divided granted certiorari resolve conflict ii examined fca qui tam provisions several recent issue case fca public disclosure bar deprives courts jurisdiction qui tam suits relevant information already entered public domain certain channels statute contains three categories disclosures following example appeals see inserted arabic numerals identify categories shall jurisdiction action section based upon public disclosure allegations transactions criminal civil administrative hearing congressional administrative government accounting office gao report hearing audit investigation news media unless action brought attorney general person bringing action original source information omitted dispute turns meaning adjective administrative second category category whether embraces forums federal nature respondent alleges whether extends disclosures made state local sources dehnr report audit report petitioners allege debating question petitioners relied primarily statute text whereas respondent solicitor general amicus relied heavily considerations history policy although overlap among three types argument useful discuss separately begin text iii term administrative may various contexts bear range related meanings chandler judicial council tenth circuit harlan concurring denial writ pertaining private bodies well governmental bodies used modify nouns report hearing audit investigation context statutory provision public disclosure fraud term naturally read describe activities governmental agencies see black law dictionary ed hereinafter black defining administration public law practical management direction executive department agencies given administrative modified federal immediately apparent textual basis excluding activities state local agencies contractors ambit appeals recognized statute express terms limit reach federal administrative reports investigations nothing inherently federal word congress define term fca appeals conclusion administrative nevertheless reaches federal sources rested application interpretive maxim noscitur sociis see maxim literally translated known associates black counsels lawyers reading statutes word may known company keeps russell motor car participants litigation acknowledge terms congressional gao federal nature congress legislative branch federal gao federal relying opinions warren maine bd environmental protection beecham appeals reasoned placement squarely middle list obviously federal sources strongly suggests likewise restricted federal administrative reports hearings audits investigations holding appeals embraced might call sandwich theory third circuit courts ou nd hard believe drafters provision intended word administrative refer state federal reports lies sandwiched modifiers unquestionably federal character ibid quoting ex rel dunleavy county delaware find use noscitur sociis unpersuasive list three items quite distinct matter construed short particularly illuminating although list may completely disjunctive refers congressional administrative gao sources rather congressional administrative gao sources neither completely harmonious substantive connection fit terms congressional administrative gao tight demand rob one independent ordinary significance reiter sonotone see also russell word may known company keeps invariable rule word may character submerged association adjectives category disparate qualify string statutory terms warren items list beecham sense used phrases cited important need evaluate administrative within larger scheme public disclosure bar parties acknowledge must tatutory language meaning context graham county soil differ determining relevant context sandwich theory presupposes category piece matters agree petitioners however sources listed provide interpretive guidance sources drive end specifying types disclosures foreclose qui tam actions light public disclosure bar grammatical structure may convenient even clarifying parse list sources three categories follow treat categories islands unto courts duty construe statutes isolated provisions gustafson alloyd consider entire text public disclosure bar case limiting administrative federal sources becomes significantly weaker news media referenced category plainly broader sweep federal government funds certain media outlets certain private outlets national focus one contends category limited sources likewise textual basis assuming criminal civil administrative hearing listed category must federal numerous types sources serve common function two distinctly federal nature one news media distinctly nonfederal nature appeals correct term administrative encompasses state local sources category see becomes even harder see term category see erlenbaugh legislative body generally uses particular word consistent meaning given context respondent solicitor general assert two references administrative distinguished category best understood refer adjudicative proceedings whereas category best understood refer legislative activities rulemaking oversight investigations see brief respondent brief amicus curiae hereinafter brief yet even reading correct state local administrative reports hearings audits investigations character presumably public likely put federal government notice potential fraud state local administrative hearings adjudicatory respondent solicitor general try avoid inference turn weakness strength averring sources listed category federal see brief respondent brief ever taken view sources see citing cases third fourth fifth ninth eleventh circuits stating courts easily concluded category applies hearings sylvia citing additional cases arguments favor reading federal limitation category supported legislative history policy find support statute text moving narrow lens sandwich theory bird eye view respondent solicitor general also maintain exclusively federal focus fca counsels reading public disclosure bar encompass nonfederal sources brief respondent brief fca undoubtedly federal focus every federal statute respondent solicitor general elsewhere acknowledge quite aspects fca including reference administrative proceedings reference news media federal event federal focus statute whole shine light specific question whether public disclosure bar extends certain nonfederal contexts fact public disclosure federal government creation receipt touchstone respondent solicitor general make one last argument grounded statutory text anomalous say state local administrative reports count public disclosures state legislative reports see brief respondent brief yet neither respondent solicitor general disputes contention petitioners amici time public disclosure bar enacted congress rarely gave state legislatures meaningful role administering overseeing federally funded programs see brief petitioners brief national league cities et al amici curiae instant case federal government far likely enter contracts provide moneys state local executive agencies whether state legislative sources included exclusion therefore carries clear implications status state administrative sources sum although term administrative may sandwiched category terms federal nature terms sandwiched phrases generally understood include nonfederal sources one phrases category contains exact term subject inquiry textual clues negate force noscitur sociis canon applied persuaded associates administrative keeps company endow exclusively federal character iv originally enacted fca limit sources relator acquire information bring qui tam action ex rel marcus hess upheld relator recovery even though discovered fraud reading federal criminal indictment quintessential parasitic suit see even government suggests petitioner contributed nothing discovery crime contributed much accomplishing one purposes act passed congress promptly reacted decision amending statute preclude qui tam actions based upon evidence information possession agency officer employee thereof time suit brought act stat codified amendment erected came known government knowledge bar nce learned false claim government assert rights fca false claimant hughes aircraft ex rel schumer internal quotation marks omitted years followed amendment volume efficacy qui tam litigation dwindled seeking golden mean adequate incentives insiders genuinely valuable information discouragement opportunistic plaintiffs significant information contribute ex rel springfield terminal quinn cadc congress overhauled statute make fca useful tool fraud modern times cook county ex rel chandler quoting hereinafter present text enacted part larger reform congress apparently concluded total bar qui tam actions based information already government possession thwarted significant number potentially valuable claims rather simply repeal government knowledge bar however congress replaced public disclosure bar effort strike balance encouraging private persons root fraud stifling parasitic lawsuits one hess exactly came strike balance way matter considerable uncertainty house senate judiciary committees reported bills contained different public disclosure bars one emerged statutes large senate bill example include words administrative audit investigation version category contain original source exception see text proposed respondent amici view background counsels favor exclusively federal interpretation administrative three separate reasons first drafting history public disclosure bar suggests congress intended result second major aim amendments limit scope government knowledge bar onstruing limited disclosures federal proceedings furthers congress purpose encourage private enforcement suits brief quoting third whereas federal administrative proceedings presumed provide attorney general fair opportunity decide whether bring fca action based revelations made therein attorney general much less likely learn fraud disclosed state proceedings respondent amici maintain perverse include nonfederal sources category local governments able shield qui tam liability discretely disclosing evidence fraud public arguments reasonable far go go far many observed drafting history public disclosure bar raises questions significant substantive changes including introduction term construing case inserted without floor debate technical amendments original senate bill mentioned congressional gao sources category therefore little moment neither house senate committee report explained federal limitation appropriate subsequent addition administrative sources category might taken sign limitation rejected full respondent amici place particular emphasis remark made lead sponsor senate bill senator grassley see brief respondent brief brief american center law justice amicus curiae brief taxpayers fraud education fund amicus curiae floor statement grassley said term definition original source meant include government source disclosures cited public disclosure bar government includes congress general accounting office executive independent agency well governmental bodies may publicly disclosed allegations cong rec yet even single sentence single legislator entitled meaningful weight senator grassley remark merely begs question us formulation fails indicate whether governmental bodies may state local bodies also turns term government capital appear codified version public disclosure bar congress subsequently revised numerous respects prior passage fact one item legislative record squarely corroborates respondent reading statute letter sent primary sponsors amendments attorney general see cong rec reproducing text letter berman grassley state intend fair reading statute confirm disclosure must federal criminal civil administrative hearing disclosure state proceeding kind bar subsequent qui tam suit needless say letter qualify legislative history given written years amendments enacted consequently scant value doubt congress passed amendments fca strengthen government hand fighting false claims cook county encourage private enforcement suits equally beyond cavil however congress passed public disclosure bar bar subset suits deemed unmeritorious downright harmful question us concerns precise scope subset matter record opaque absence specific legislative history way modifies conventional judicial duty give faithful meaning language congress adopted light evident legislative purpose enacting law question bornstein evident legislative purpose guide resolution discrete issue confronts us respondent amici likewise fail prove case petitioners reading statute lead results congress intended argument rests empirical proposition federal inquiries outcomes readily available department justice doj attorneys many state local reports investigations never come attention federal authorities brief see also federal government unlikely learn state local investigations large number fraudulent claims government go unremedied without financial incentives offered qui tam provisions fca proposition implausible sheer conjecture numerous federal investigations may occurring given time doj attorneys may reliably learn findings doj attorneys may learn quite state local inquiries especially inquiries conducted pursuant joint program financed part federal dollars program issue accessible attorney general typical state local source compared federal source open question even right question statutory touchstone whether allegations fraud public ly disclos ed whether landed desk doj lawyer respondent argument also gives insufficient weight congress decision bar qui tam actions based disclosures news media ibid bar prior addition news media category forecloses suggestion amendments implemented intent increase availability qui tam litigation since news media include large number local newspapers radio stations category likely describes multitude sources seldom come attention attorney general respondent amici concern local governments insulate qui tam liability careful low key potential fraud brief american center law justice amicus curiae argument rests speculation indeed rather strained speculation disclosure immunize local government fca liability action brought see rockwell contrary tip attorney general action might fruitful seems us petitioners view assert iven fact submission false claim subjects defendant criminal liability fines debarment treble damages attorneys fees rational entity prepare report fraud sole purpose cutting qui tam actions reply brief petitioners see also ex rel premo fear disclosures unfounded general unlikely agency trying cover fraud reveal requisite transactions underlying fraud public document conclusion buttressed fact congress carefully preserved rights deserving qui tam plaintiffs qualify original sources notwithstanding public disclosure allegations made qui tam plaintiff case may go forward original source information therefore flat wrong suggest finding petitioners effect return us unduly restrictive government knowledge prevailed prior brief quoting dunleavy see brief respondent asserting petitioners construction reimpose form knowledge bar capitalization omitted today ruling merely confirms disclosures made one type context state local report audit investigation may trigger public disclosure bar bearing disclosures made contexts leaves intact ability original sources prosecute qui tam actions irrespective state government knowledge whether respondent qualify original source term defined one many issues remain open remand vi respondent solicitor general given numerous reasons believe reading fca moves closer golden mean inadequate excessive scope private enforcement congress may well endorsed views recent amendment public disclosure bar see supra respect version us however conclude term administrative category limited federal sources judgment appeals reversed case remanded proceedings consistent opinion ordered graham county soil water conservation district et petitioners ex rel karen wilson writ certiorari appeals fourth circuit march justice scalia concurring part concurring judgment join parts opinion part iv agree stray snippets legislative history respondent solicitor general dissent collected prove nothing congress purpose enacting ante share premise history make difference ante quoting bornstein constitution gives legal effect laws congress enacts art vi cl objectives members aimed achieve voting see oncale sundowner offshore services text includes state local administrative reports audits correctly concludes utterly irrelevant whether members congress intended otherwise anyway utterly impossible discern members congress intended except extent intent manifested remnant history bears unanimous endorsement majority house text enrolled bill became law graham county soil water conservation district et petitioners ex rel karen wilson writ certiorari appeals fourth circuit march justice sotomayor justice breyer joins dissenting false claims act fca divests federal courts jurisdiction hear qui tam lawsuits based allegations transactions publicly disclosed congressional administrative government accounting office gao report hearing audit investigation unless qui tam relator original source information omitted today reads phrase administrative report hearing audit investigation encompass federal also state local government sources view misreads statutory text gives insufficient weight contextual historical evidence congress purpose enacting affirm judgment appeals hold administrative provision refers federal government section sets forth three categories public disclosure trigger fca jurisdictional bar allegations transactions criminal civil administrative hearing congressional administrative gao report hearing audit investigation news media like majority inserted arabic numerals refer three phrases categories canon statutory construction words statute must read context view place overall statutory scheme fda brown williamson tobacco quoting davis michigan dept treasury party disputes congressional gao refer federal government sources ante nn acknowledges ante word administrative capacious potentially reaching federal state local government sources also disclosures private entities see black law dictionary ed defining administrative pertain ing administration especially management execution application conduct persons things like appeals view congress choice two clearly federal terms bookend federal term strong contextual cue meaning maxim noscitur sociis inescapable rule often wisely applied word capable many meanings order avoid giving unintended breadth acts congress gutierrez ada quoting jarecki searle immediate proximity congressional gao suggests administrative read like neighbors referring federal government sources congress intended include state local government administrative materials said instance referring generically governmental sources see applies logic underlies noscitur sociis canon concluding administrative refer private entities meaning suggested slightly distant neighbors report hearing audit investigation see ante agree majority administrative context reach private entities view congressional gao provide better textual grounding conclusion see reason administrati private university instance issue report order audit investigation conduct hearing contrary majority suggestion private entities particularly receiving federal funds participating federal programs incapable making public disclosure fraud federal government despite implicit reliance canon nevertheless rejects appeals application noscitur sociis interpret three terms category concluding list three items quite distinct matter construed short particularly illuminating ante three terms category concludes disparate justify invocation noscitur sociis ante previously constrained canon way take one example jarecki construed statutory term income statute defined include income resulting discovery prospecting quoting internal revenue code recognizing word usable many contexts various shades meaning observed gathers meaning words around concluded three words conjunction describe activity oil gas mining industries result light contextual evidence supporting conclusion held sales newly invented drugs camera equipment give rise abnormal income even inventions might otherwise understood discover ies see view three terms category distinct disparate ante phrase issue jarecki particularly given expansive plain meaning discovery cf ante application noscitur sociis principle readily yields common feature sources issue federal nature related state local governments private entities see third nat bank nashville impac limited applying principle words grouped list given related meaning term sandwiched two words statutory phrase injunction draws additional support conclusion reference provision larger scheme ante sources enumerated categories although scope category us today although never addressed question believes reading category limited federal government sources inconsistent decisions lower courts interpreted criminal civil administrative hearing category include state federal proceedings conflict however categories read respondent solicitor general urge exclusively federal see brief respondent brief amicus curiae even reading category broadly however change exclusively federal nature congressional gao undermines whatever inference might drawn taking statutory terms strict succession treating entirety undifferentiated list items gives short shrift syntactical choices congress made offsetting category commas prepositions providing distinct classes adjectives modify different nouns finally also views news media distinctly nonfederal nature ante news media seem particularly illuminating context appeals observed although media sources may national local scope distinction analogous difference federal state government sources ii view statutory context legislative history also less opaque cf ante supportive reading adopted appeals majority today acknowledges legislative record concededly incomplete provide reason exercise caution giving statutory text broadest possible meaning encompass federal also state local government sources three points particularly salient first prior amendments government knowledge bar unquestionably referred information possession federal even still bar criticized overly restrictive senate report initial version legislation instance described fca history need legislative reform noting several restrictive interpretations act tend thwart effectiveness statute hereinafter instance courts applied government knowledge bar even government makes effort investigate take action original allegations received citing ex rel lapin international business machines supp haw second support recognizes proposition congress sought amendments broaden availability qui tam relief senate report characterized reform effort intended enhance government ability recover losses sustained result fraud government dwelt length severe growing problem fraud federal programs accord evidence fraud government programs procurement steady rise senate report also articulated desire encourage individual knowing government fraud bring information forward identified perhaps serious problem plaguing effective enforcement antifraud laws lack resources part federal enforcement agencies consistent expressed views enacted legislation replete provisions encouraging qui tam actions replacing government knowledge bar current text including exception original source congress allowed private parties sue even based information already government possession cook county ex rel chandler amendments also established right qui tam relators continue party suit government intervenes ed increased percentage recovery available incentive private suits created cause action employers retaliate qui tam relators sure congress also concerned guarding purely opportunistic parasitic qui tam relators see describing history parasitic suits amendments ante lower courts viewed amendments striking balance twin goals rejecting suits government capable pursuing promoting government equipped bring ex rel springfield terminal quinn cadc evidence congress sought balance two competing goals supports moderation interpreting arguably ambiguous statutory text rather woodenly reading statutory language fullest possible extent third legislative record hint bar suits based disclosures state local government sources brief amicus curiae quoting ex rel center metro westchester supp sdny inclusion state local government sources constituted significant departure federal government knowledge bar existed four decades neither initial bills reported senate house committees statements individual members congress subsequent versions legislation suggest consideration debate expanding bar apply state local government although points definitively resolve question presented today mind counsel reading ed broadly disturb balance congress evidently sought achieve amendments today decision risks result imposes jurisdictional bar appearances restrictive qui tam suits regime construing encompass thousands state local government administrative reports produced year effectively imputes federal government knowledge sources whether government aware information position act solicitor general specifically warns information federal administrative audits investigations readily available attorneys department justice many state local reports investigations never come attention federal authorities brief amicus curiae dismisses concern sheer conjecture postulating government lawyers may fact learn quite state local reports investigations particularly joint ante perhaps absent concrete reason believe otherwise readily dismiss formal representation executive branch entity responsibility practical experience litigating fca claims behalf sum statute plain text evidence congress intent expand qui tam actions practical consequences expansive interpretation together suggest category reasonably read encompass federal state local government reasons given affirm judgment appeals respectfully dissent footnotes march president signed law patient protection affordable care act pub stat section legislation replaces prior version new language legislation makes mention retroactivity necessary application pending cases given eliminates petitioners claimed defense qui tam suit see hughes aircraft ex rel schumer throughout opinion use present tense discussing statute existed time case argued compare limiting portion public disclosure bar federal sources ex rel dunleavy county delaware ex rel premo concluding state local sources may qualify cert denied battle board regents state per curiam assuming without analysis state audits may qualify eighth circuit appears taken middle road issue holding disclosures made nonfederal forums may count report instances relate cooperative program federal government provides financial assistance hays hoffman cert denied see rockwell construing original source exception cook county ex rel chandler holding local governments subject qui tam liability vermont agency natural resources ex rel stevens holding subject private fca actions separate statutory provision defines original source individual direct independent knowledge information allegations based voluntarily provided information government filing action section based information see art cl distinguishing state legislature congress statute refers gao mistakenly government accounting office undisputed intended referent general accounting office renamed government accountability office see compiler note ex rel mistick pbt housing authority pittsburgh alito cert denied see also mistick becker dissenting noting courts frequently made scrivener error described gao independent agency within legislative branch exists large part serve needs congress bowsher merck jarecki searle applied noscitur sociis maxim construing statutory provision referred ncome resulting exploration discovery prospecting quoting internal revenue code justice sotomayor contends three terms category phrase issue jarecki post dissenting opinion citation omitted disagree whether taken isolation context phrase congressional administrative gao cohesive phrase exploration discovery prospecting one reason noscitur sociis proved illuminating jarecki less helpful case face terms exploration discovery prospecting describe processes searching seeking speculating centrality activities oil gas mining industries gave clue industries congress mind drafted provision internal quotation marks omitted terms congressional administrative gao share comparable core meaning indeed common feature post apart governmental connotation takes sandwich theory graft federal limitation onto administrative number lower courts concluded used category roughly synonymous ex rel springfield terminal quinn cadc see also boese civil false claims qui tam actions ed hereinafter boese sylvia false claims act fraud government hereinafter sylvia see indeed statute seem inconsistent included state local administrative hearings sources public disclosures category next breath excluded state administrative reports sources natural gas royalties qui tam litigation supp wyo reason conclude congress intended limit administrative reports audits investigations federal actions simultaneously allowing state local civil litigation state local administrative hearings state local news media treated public disclosures interpret statute narrowly anomalous result allowing public disclosure status obscure local news report obscure state local civil lawsuit administrative hearing denying public disclosure status formal public report state government agency following appeals see respondent asserts ninth circuit ambulance california explicitly considered rejected argument category limited federal sources brief respondent least one circuit however done see ex rel hafter spectrum emergency care lower far aware much suggested alternative construction might viable moreover third fifth eleventh circuit cases cited appeals postdate ambulance dunleavy put litigants courts notice possibility might limited federal sources face silent whether includes nonfederal proceedings respondent solicitor general suggest though fairly argue provision relating civil investigative demands little relevance case hand see brief respondent brief appeals repeatedly referred three categories clauses see fact clauses rather prepositional phrases reliance noscitur sociis might supported one earliest cases using term watson mercer pet reporter statement case suggested different clauses sentence presumed embrace subject matter sentence appeals mistaken reference clauses course less significant failure treat public disclosure bar integrated whole cf stevens shakespeare canon statutory construction rev emphasizing importance reading provisions broader statutory context see also pp text proposed public disclosure bar enacted closely resembles version senate bill state governments already shielded qui tam liability precedent stevens see dunleavy congress gave us little specific guidance determine scope public disclosure sources ex rel stinson lyons gerlin bustamante prudential ins bill eventuated amendments underwent substantial revisions legislative path provides ample opportunity search legislative history find support somewhere almost construction many ambiguous terms final version scirica dissenting one difficulty interpreting amendments congress never completely clear kind suits attempting avoid boese present section enacted without explanation congress pplicable legislative history explaining versions adopted little help deciphering provision section drafted subsequent completion house senate committee reports proposed false claims act amendments reports contained discussion altogether different bars used interpreting sponsors interpretations provision ultimately enacted spare often incorrect enough provide support almost construction many ambiguities justice sotomayor makes valiant effort unearth legislative history balance congress evidently sought achieve amendments post reconstruction history assigns little weight side balance preserved public disclosure bar desire minimize potential parasitic lawsuits learn fraud public channels seek remuneration although contributed nothing exposure fraud ex rel doe john doe narrative contains account category emerged form account necessarily exercise speculation record silent matter view neither general trajectory fca reform specific statements made legislative process clearly point one way question us see consumer product safety gte sylvania hamdan rumsfeld see also hafter refusing credit letter interpreting public disclosure bar respondent amici additionally contend enactment program fraud civil remedies act pfcra stat codified et seq shortly enactment fca amendments supports reading latter see brief respondent brief brief taxpayers fraud education fund amicus curiae yet question pfcra designed operate tandem fca stevens pfcra addressed federal administrative agencies also explicit evidence suggest congress intended limit category reference administrative sources set agencies fca public disclosure bar serves distinct function replicated pfcra text public disclosure bar contains reference pfcra member congress far aware articulated intent instances federal law dictates state local governments receiving federal funds perform audit programs see requiring nonfederal entities expend federal awards certain amount undergo single audit accordance specified conditions brief state pennsylvania et al amici curiae discussing single audit act bears mention extent one worried federal government ignorance state local antifraud efforts see post today ruling may induce federal authorities pay closer attention efforts going forward petitioners amici also counter public policy arguments appeals reading statute allege increased likelihood parasitic relators beat deserving relators courthouse brief petitioners state local governments find antifraud investigations impeded decline conduct investigations first place account opportunistic potential relators trolling state records reports available public search qui tam claim brief state pennsylvania et al amici curiae footnotes notes recent legislation amended language see ante citing pub stat like use present tense throughout opinion discussing statute existed time case argued observes enacting congress erroneously referred general accounting office renamed government accountability office government accounting office ante relies reiter sonotone proposition three terms category independent ordinary significance ante reiter involved statutory term business property two words less readily suggest shared limiting principle congressional administrative gao moreover concern rob bing word broader meaning rested desire ignore disjunctive statutory pairing see also canons construction ordinarily suggest terms connected disjunctive given separate meanings congress employ completely disjunctive list congressional administrative gao reiter principle applies less force cf garcia applying disjunctive principle construing statutory prohibition assault robbery custodian matter money property observing three classes property separated conjunction quoting emphasis deleted originally enacted bar applied suits based upon evidence information possession agency officer employee thereof time suit brought stat congress recodified provision apply suits based evidence information government action brought stat senate report also discussed ex rel wisconsin dean barred wisconsin bringing qui tam suit medicaid fraud state previously disclosed information federal government even state investigation discovered fraud lower courts observed dean decision controversial appears motivated inclusion original source exception jurisdictional bar see wang fmc see also noting resolution national association attorneys general criticizing dean urging congress address problem introducing later version bill senator grassley described reform effort stemming realization government needs help lots help adequately protect taxpayer funds growing increasingly sophisticated fraud cong rec see also ex rel siller becton dickinson section enacted congress come conclusion fraud government apparently rampant difficult identify government use help get private citizens knowledge fraud internal quotation marks omitted see also boese civil false claims qui tam actions supp irtually changes introduced th section amendments addressing qui tam actions expanded rights qui tam relators amendments also contained number provisions facilitating enforcement generally lowering requisite showing intent making clear knowing violations require proof specific intent defraud ed lengthening statute limitations authorizing treble damages fairly observes addition news media jurisdictional bar undercuts attributing congress intent expand availability qui tam relief ante neither provision support reading category broadest possible extent moreover barring suits based news media disclosures may constituted particularly significant expansion existing law courts applied government knowledge bar dismiss actions based information reported news media ex rel thompson hays supp dc dismissed suit based evidence gleaned sources news media received widespread public attention alleging fraud member congress department justice first obtained information regarding claims result washington post article similarly burmah oil per curiam characterized government knowledge bar discourag ing filing actions parties information contribute merely plagiarized information indictments returned courts newspaper stories congressional investigations congress reasonably assumed news media report kinds frauds naturally perhaps result reporting come government attention thus already covered existing law june house committee judiciary reported bill barred qui tam actions based information government disclosed basis allegations made prior administrative civil criminal proceeding disclosed course congressional investigation disseminated news media pp internal quotation marks omitted references information disclosed government capital congressional investigation connote federal state local government sources july senate committee judiciary reported version bill barring actions based upon allegations transactions subject civil suit government already party within six months disclosure specific information relating allegations transactions criminal civil administrative hearing congressional government accounting office report hearing news media reference suits federal government party absence ambiguous term administrative bill reference congressional gao reports hearings similarly tend exclude disclosures state local government reports enacted legislation differ several respects reported bills subsequent legislative record contains reference inclusion state local government sources see cong rec statement grassley statements glickman berman course ed speaks public disclosure notice government requirement public disclosure countenances notice public otherwise indeed number lower courts look whether federal government notice alleged fraud concluding particular source public disclosure allegations transactions see ex rel poteet medtronic public disclosure reveals fraud information sufficient put government notice likelihood related fraudulent activity internal quotation marks omitted alcan elec similar ex rel fine sandia similar observes federal law requires recipients federal funds conduct audits ante amici point auditing reporting requirements single audit act brief state pennsylvania et al amici curiae hereinafter brief neither amici rebut solicitor general pragmatic observation vague summary nature many reports alert federal government fraud brief amicus curiae majority notes passing several policy arguments advanced petitioners amici ante none merits much weight petitioners concerned race courthouse parasitic relators capitalize information released state local government report disadvantage insider brief petitioners fca provision reflects congress explicit policy choice encourage prompt filing turn prompt recovery defrauded funds amici concerned relators may interfere ongoing state local government investigations trolling state records reports evidence fraud brief state laws exempt materials related ongoing civil investigations see stat ann cum supp stat tit purdon supp event fca contains provision giving state local governments privileged position qui tam relators respect local governments defendants