philadelphia newspapers hepps argued december decided april appellee hepps principal stockholder appellee corporation franchises chain stores selling beer soft drinks snacks appellant owner published series articles philadelphia newspaper whose general theme hepps franchisor corporation franchisees also appellees links organized crime used links influence state governmental processes appellees brought defamation suit pennsylvania state newspaper owner authors also appellants articles question concluding pennsylvania statute giving defendant burden proving truth allegedly defamatory statements violated federal constitution trial instructed jury plaintiff bore burden proving falsity jury ruled appellants therefore awarded damages appellees pennsylvania concluding showing fault require showing falsity held place burden showing truth defendant unconstitutionally inhibit free debate remanded case new trial held case one newspaper publishes speech public concern private figure plaintiff recover damages without also showing statements issue false case scales uncertain balance whether statements true false constitution requires scales tipped favor protecting true speech ensure true speech matters public concern deterred presumption defamatory speech false stand pennsylvania shield law allows employees media refuse divulge sources places heavier burden appellees precise scope law unclear circumstances appear law requires different constitutional standard prevail absence law pp reversed remanded delivered opinion brennan marshall blackmun powell joined brennan filed concurring opinion blackmun joined post stevens filed dissenting opinion burger white rehnquist joined post david marion argued cause appellants briefs samuel klein kerry adams ronald surkin argued cause appellees brief edwin rome briefs amici curiae urging reversal filed american civil liberties union et al john koeltl james goodale burt neuborne jack novick stefan presser bruce sanford terry maguire bruce rich robert sack alice neff lucan american federation labor congress industrial organizations david silberman lawrence gold capital cities communications et al bernard segal jerome shestack carl solano elihu greenhouse lawrence gunnels print broadcast media et al barrett prettyman dan paul franklin burt steven kamp john mcelhaney richard schmidt peter banta stuart pierson neil shapiro wilford kirton david olive theodore sherbow robert haydock peter michael meloy joel blass william ogden eric lanphere michael gross conrad shumadine william niese norton armour hugh stevens thomas cobb michael minnis james koley laurent scharff alexander wellford donald holbrook edward davis cameron devore gregg thomas jack weiss rutledge clement george rahdert daniel popeo filed brief american legal foundation amicus curiae urging affirmance justice delivered opinion case requires us struggl define proper accommodation law defamation freedoms speech press protected first amendment gertz robert welch gertz held private figure brings suit defamation recover without showing media defendant fault publishing statements issue hold least newspaper publishes speech public concern plaintiff recover damages without also showing statements issue false maurice hepps principal stockholder general programming gpi corporation franchises chain stores known relevant time thrifty stores selling beer soft drinks snacks hepps gpi number franchisees appellees appellant philadelphia newspapers owns philadelphia inquirer inquirer inquirer published series articles authored appellants william ecenbarger william lambert containing statements issue general theme five articles appeared inquirer may may appellees links organized crime used links influence state governmental processes legislative administrative articles discussed state legislator described pittsburgh democrat convicted felon app whose actions displayed clear pattern interference state government legislator behalf hepps thrifty stories reported federal investigators found connections thrifty underworld figures thrifty beverage beer chain connections organized crime thrifty series competitive advantages rulings state liquor control board grand jury said investigating alleged relationship thrifty chain known mafia figures hether chain received special treatment state governor administration liquor control board appellees brought suit defamation appellants pennsylvania state consistent gertz supra pennsylvania requires private figure brings suit defamation bear burden proving negligence malice defendant publishing statements issue cons stat falsity pennsylvania follows common law presumption individual reputation good one statements defaming person therefore presumptively false although publisher bears burden proving truth statements absolute defense see see also cons stat defendant burden proving truth defamatory statement cf gertz supra common law presumes injury reputation publication defamatory statements see generally eaton american law defamation gertz robert welch beyond analytical primer rev describing scheme defamation law parties first raised issue burden proof falsity trial trial reserved ruling matter appellee hepps testified length statements issue false tr extensively author stories veracity statements issue evidence presented sides trial concluded pennsylvania statute giving defendant burden proving truth statements violated federal constitution trial therefore instructed jury plaintiffs bore burden proving falsity trial appellants took advantage pennsylvania shield law number occasions law allows employees media refuse divulge sources see cons stat person employed newspaper general circulation radio television station magazine general circulation shall required disclose source information procured obtained person legal proceeding trial investigation government unit see also statute interpreted broadly appellees requested instruction stating jury draw negative inference appellants assertions shield law appellants requested instruction jury draw inferences exercises shield law privilege trial judge declined give either instruction tr jury ruled appellants therefore awarded damages appellees pursuant pennsylvania statute cons stat appellees brought appeal directly pennsylvania viewed gertz simply requiring plaintiff show fault actions defamation concluded showing fault require showing falsity held place burden showing truth defendant unconstitutionally inhibit free debate remanded case new trial noted probable jurisdiction reverse ii new york times sullivan determin ed first time extent constitutional protections speech press limit state power award damages libel action brought public official critics official conduct state trial case believed statements tended injure plaintiff reputation bring public contempt therefore libelous per se trial therefore instructed jury presume falsity malice damage reputation long found defendant published statements statements concerned plaintiff ibid trial also instructed jury award punitive damages required malice actual malice jury found plaintiff made award damages distinguish compensatory punitive damages alabama upheld judgment trial respects reversed holding libel claim immunity constitutional limitations background profound national commitment principle debate public issues uninhibited robust may well include vehement caustic sometimes unpleasantly sharp attacks noted uthoritative interpretations first amendment guarantees consistently refused recognize exception test truth whether administered judges juries administrative officials especially one puts burden proving truth speaker freedoms expression require breathing space quoting naacp button rule compelling critic official conduct guarantee truth factual assertions pain libel judgments virtually unlimited amount leads rule critics official conduct may deterred voicing criticism even though believed true even though fact true doubt whether proved fear expense prohibits public official recovering damages defamatory falsehood relating official conduct unless proves statement made actual malice knowledge false reckless disregard whether false decade new york times examined constitutional limits defamation suits plaintiffs media defendants gertz supra concluded danger valid exclusive concern suits defamation need avoid news media societal value issue embraced long ago view publishers broadcasters enjoy unconditional indefeasible immunity liability defamation gertz supra see also rosenblatt baer stewart concurring analysis must also take account legitimate state interest underlying law libel compensation individuals harm inflicted defamatory falsehood gertz supra see also time firestone discussing appropriate accommodation public interest uninhibited press equally compelling need judicial redress libelous utterances light interest light fact private figures lesser access media channels useful counteracting false statements voluntarily placed public eye gertz supra held constitution allows impose liability publisher broadcaster defamatory falsehood less demanding showing required new york times long impose liability without fault may define appropriate standard liability publisher broadcaster defamatory falsehood injurious private individual nonetheless even private figures involved constitutional requirement fault supersedes common law presumptions fault damages addition gertz expressly held although showing simple fault sufficed allow recovery actual damages even plaintiff required show actual malice order recover presumed punitive damages recently considered constitutional limits suits defamation dun bradstreet greenmoss builders sharp contrast new york times dun bradstreet involved plaintiff also speech purely private concern plurality dun bradstreet convinced case configuration speech plaintiff showing actual malice needed recover punitive damages either new york times gertz unnecessary light reduced constitutional value speech involving matters public concern hold state interest preserving private reputation adequately supports awards presumed punitive damages even absent showing actual malice opinion powell omitted one discern decisions two forces may reshape landscape conform first amendment first whether plaintiff public official figure instead private figure second whether speech issue public concern speech public concern plaintiff public official public figure constitution clearly requires plaintiff surmount much higher barrier recovering damages media defendant raised common law speech public concern plaintiff private figure gertz constitution still supplants standards common law constitutional requirements least range less forbidding plaintiff public figure speech public concern speech exclusively private concern plaintiff private figure dun bradstreet constitutional requirements necessarily force change least features landscape opinions date chiefly treated necessary showings fault rather falsity nonetheless one might expect given language new york times see supra plaintiff must show falsity statements issue order prevail suit defamation see garrison louisiana reading new york times proposition public official allowed civil defamation remedy establishes utterance false see also herbert lando plaintiff must focus editorial process prove false publication attended degree culpability gertz plaintiff private figure newspaper articles public concern gertz new york times rule superseded constitutional rule believe common law rule falsity defendant must bear burden proving truth must similarly fall constitutional requirement plaintiff bear burden showing falsity well fault recovering damages always instances factfinding process unable resolve conclusively whether speech true false cases burden proof dispositive rule forcing plaintiff bear burden showing falsity cases plaintiffs meet burden despite fact speech fact false plaintiff suit fail despite fact abstract sense suit meritorious similarly alternative rule placing burden showing truth defendants cases defendants bear burden despite fact speech fact true suits succeed despite fact abstract sense suits unmeritorious either rule outcome suit sometimes variance outcome desire speech either demonstrably true demonstrably false dilemma stems fact allocation burden proof determine liability speech true false speech unknowably true false burden proof deciding factor evidence ambiguous know much speech affected allocation burden proof true much false case presenting configuration speech plaintiff like one face scales uncertain balance believe constitution requires us tip favor protecting true speech ensure true speech matters public concern deterred hold presumption defamatory speech false stand plaintiff seeks damages media defendant speech public concern context governmental restriction speech long established government limit speech protected first amendment without bearing burden showing restriction justified see consolidated edison public service restriction first national bank boston bellotti restriction renton playtime theatres ante restriction see also speiser randall striking precondition taxpayer sign loyalty oath receiving certain tax benefits immediately apparent text first amendment terms applies governmental action similar result obtain suit private party obviously quite different government direct enforcement laws nonetheless need encourage debate public issues concerned cases concern similar manner case involving private suit damages placement state law burden proving truth upon media defendants publish speech public concern deters speech fear liability unjustifiably result see new york times garrison supra truth may subject either civil criminal sanctions discussion public affairs concerned chilling effect antithetical first amendment protection true speech matters public concern believe plaintiff must bear burden showing speech issue false recovering damages defamation media defendant otherwise result deterrence speech constitution makes free speiser supra recognize requiring plaintiff show falsity insulate liability speech false unprovably nonetheless previous decisions restrictions first amendment places upon common law defamation firmly support conclusion respect allocation burden proof attempting resolve related issues defamation context affirmed first amendment requires protect falsehood order protect speech matters gertz speech concerns legitimacy political process therefore clearly matters see dun bradstreet speech public concern core first amendment protections provide breathing space new york times supra quoting naacp button true speech matters public concern willing insulate even demonstrably false speech liability imposed additional requirements fault upon plaintiff suit defamation see garrison gertz supra therefore break new ground insulating speech even demonstrably false note decision adds marginally burdens plaintiff must already bear result earlier decisions law defamation plaintiff must show fault jury obviously likely accept plaintiff contention defendant fault publishing statements issue convinced relevant statements false practical matter evidence offered plaintiffs publisher fault adequately investigating truth published statements generally encompass evidence falsity matters asserted see keeton defamation freedom press texas rev see also franklin bussel plaintiff burden defamation awareness falsity wm mary rev recognize plaintiff burden case weightier pennsylvania shield law allows employees media refuse divulge sources see supra us question permissible reach laws indeed even know precise reach pennsylvania statute trial judge refused give instructions jury whether draw inference adverse defendant defendant decision use shield law rather present affirmative evidence truthfulness sources see supra decision trial judge addressed pennsylvania highest appealed situation us unconvinced state shield law requires different constitutional standard prevail absence law reasons stated judgment pennsylvania reversed case remanded proceedings inconsistent opinion ordered footnotes state courts considered issue since gertz reached differing conclusions compare denny mertz defendant must bear burden showing truth cert denied memphis publishing nichols gazette harris plaintiff must bear burden showing falsity cert denied madison yunker mont pennsylvania alone choice see code cal art civ rights law mckinney also occasion consider quantity proof falsity plaintiff must present recover damages need consider standards apply plaintiff sues nonmedia defendant see hutchinson proxmire state provide plaintiff opportunity obtain judgment declared speech issue false give rise liability damages justice brennan justice blackmun joins concurring believe allegedly defamatory speech public concern first amendment requires plaintiff whether public official public figure private individual prove statements issue false thus join opinion cf rosenbloom metromedia write separately note reserves question whether rule announces applies nonmedia defendants ante adhere view distinction irreconcilable fundamental first amendment principle inherent worth speech terms capacity informing public depend upon identity source whether corporation association union individual dun bradstreet greenmoss builders brennan dissenting quoting first national bank boston bellotti justice stevens chief justice justice white justice rehnquist join dissenting issue resolves today make difference one category cases private individual prove libeled defendant least negligent unless plaintiff overcome burden imposed gertz robert welch recover regardless burden proof issue truth falsity allocated definition therefore litigants publishers benefit today decision act negligently maliciously acknowledging need accommodat law defamation freedoms speech press protected first amendment ante quoting gertz robert welch decides override presumption retained several defamatory speech false need ensure true speech matters public concern deterred ante agree precedents require private individual bear risk defamatory statement uttered either mind toward assassinating good name careless indifference possibility proven false attaching weight state interest protecting private individual good name reached pernicious result state interest preventing redressing injuries reputation obviously important justice stewart eloquently reminded us concurrence rosenblatt baer right man protection reputation unjustified invasion wrongful hurt reflects basic concept essential dignity worth every human concept root decent system ordered liberty protection private personality like protection life left primarily individual ninth tenth amendments mean right entitled less recognition basic constitutional system first fourteenth amendments stripped private citizens means redress injuries inflicted upon careless liars destruction defamatory falsehood bring sure often beyond capacity law redeem yet imperfect though action damages hope vindication redress law gives man whose reputation falsely dishonored moreover preventive effect liability defamation serves important public purpose rights values private personality far transcend mere personal interests surely taught us anything taught us poisonous atmosphere easy lie infect degrade whole society appreciate thrust holding must assume libel plaintiff prove story published actual malice without publisher caring slightest whether false indeed order comprehend full ramifications today decision assume publisher knew impossible verify discredit story published purpose destroy reputation plaintiff even plaintiff overwhelming proof malice sense term used new york times sullivan today seems believe character assassin constitutional license defame opinion deliberate malicious character assassination protected first amendment constitution amendment require target defamatory statement prove assailant fault agree provides constitutional shield truthful statements simply understand however character assassin given absolute license defame means statements neither verified disproved danger deliberate defamation reference unprovable facts merely speculative hypothetical concern lack knowledge third parties loss critical records uncertain recollection events occurred long ago perhaps period special stress absence eyewitnesses host factors may make impossible honorable person disprove malicious gossip past conduct relatives friends business associates danger speak illustrated within confines case appellants published series five articles proclaiming federal authorities found connections thrifty underworld figures app federal agents evidence direct financial involvement thrifty joseph scalleat leader organized crime northeastern pennsylvania thrifty beverage beer chain connections organized crime defamatory character statements undisputed yet factual basis one specific allegation contained based admitted relationship appellees third party truth falsity statement depends character conduct third party matter jury may well resolved plaintiffs ground disprove allegation bore burden proof despite obvious blueprint character assassination provided decision today analytical approach attaching little weight strong state interest redressing injury private reputation provides wholly unwarranted protection malicious gossip understand opinion counterintuitive result derived straightforward syllogism major premise seems first amendment protection true speech matters public concern ante tantamount command rule law stand exclude true speech public domain minor premise although know much speech affected allocation burden proof true much false ante least unverifiable gossip true premises necessarily follows rule burdening dissemination speech contravene first amendment accordingly plaintiff must bear burden showing speech issue false recovering damages defamation media defendant ante result plausible however grossly undervalues strong state interest redressing injuries private reputations error lies initial premise mistaken belief doubt regarding veracity defamatory statement must invariably resolved favor constitutional protection statement vindication reputation private individual support premise relies exclusively precedents requiring government bear burden proving restriction speech justified see ante whether restrictions appear form legislation burdening speech particular speakers particular points view actions punishing seditious libel doubtlessly correct government agents must minimum shoulder burden proving speech false must sufficient reliability confident true speech suppressed achieve reliability new york times sullivan incorporated first amendment privilege criticism official conduct see erroneous statement inevitable free debate must protected freedoms expression breathing space need survive button privilege defeasible defamatory statement made actual malice knowledge false reckless disregard whether false allowance defense truth burden proving defendant found wanting mean false speech deterred doubts regarding whether truth proved fear expense force critics official conduct steer far wider unlawful zone quoting speiser randall even assuming attacks reputation public figure presumed true however different calculus appropriate defamatory statement disparages reputation private individual case overriding concern reliable protection truthful statements must make room legitimate state interest underlying law libel compensation individuals harm inflicted defamatory falsehood gertz robert welch public official course less interest protecting reputation individual private life rosenbloom metromedia opinion brennan private persons vulnerable injury deserving recovery vulnerable lack access channels effective communication counteract false statements deserving relinquished part good name thrust ing forefront particular public controversies order influence resolution issues involved gertz robert welch recognition strong legitimate state interest compensating private individuals injury reputation exposes untenability methodology burden proof libel suits simply determined reference precedents reputations public figures mind libel cases brought latter category plaintiffs view erroneous verdict plaintiff serious mulct defendant innocent misstatement possibility error create strong impetus toward selfcensorship first amendment tolerate rosenbloom metromedia opinion brennan view long publishers protected requirement plaintiff burden proving fault little basis concern significant amount true speech deterred unless private person victimized malicious libel also carry burden proving falsity decision trades good names private individuals little first amendment coin show respectfully dissent see elliott roach ind app trahan ritterman la app parsons gulf south american la app cert denied madison yunker mont rogozinski airstream angell super modified super martin griffin television corabi curtis publishing memphis publishing nichols frank hall buck tex app cert denied denny mertz cert denied doubt historical fact interest one good name considered important interest requiring legal protection thousand years ago far history concerned interest became legally protected interest comparatively soon interest bodily integrity given legal protection eldridge law defamation pp see dun bradstreet greenmoss builders opinion powell white concurring judgment brennan dissenting individual interest reputation certainly core notions human dignity gertz robert welch constitutional value false statements fact neither intentional lie careless error materially advances society interest uninhibited robust debate public issues new york times sullivan belong category utterances essential part exposition ideas slight social value step truth benefit may derived clearly outweighed social interest order morality chaplinsky new hampshire gertz robert welch cf new york times sullivan cases however furnished meaningful guidance definition reckless publication new york times supra plaintiff satisfy burden record failed show publisher aware likelihood circulating false information garrison state louisiana opinion emphasized necessity showing false publication made high degree awareness probable falsity justice harlan opinion curtis publishing butts stated evidence either deliberate falsification reckless publication despite publisher awareness probable falsity essential recovery public officials defamation actions cases clear reckless conduct measured whether reasonably prudent man published investigated publishing must sufficient evidence permit conclusion defendant fact entertained serious doubts truth publication publishing doubts shows reckless disregard truth falsity demonstrates actual malice amant thompson see rosenblatt baer stewart concurring new york times rule ultimately protects defamatory falsehood presumably reason believes decision adds marginally burdens plaintiff must already bear result earlier decisions law defamation ante see ibid practical matter evidence offered plaintiffs publisher fault adequately investigating truth published statements generally encompass evidence falsity matters asserted citations omitted although inclined agree preceding observation agree supports result reached today allocation burden proof inconsequential many cases provides answer cases determinative see infra moreover belief however sincere decision significantly impair state interest redressing injury reputation sufficient justify overriding state law see gertz robert welch note makes claim decision impose libel plaintiffs burden proving falsity necessary prevent jury confusion see keeton dobbs keeton owen prosser keeton law torts pp ed inconsistency assuming falsity defendant publisher proves otherwise requiring plaintiff prove negligence recklessness respect truth falsity imputation see also rather circuitous argument appellants contend falsity inextricably bound proof fault appellants assert prove fault plaintiff fact must demonstrate falsity matter instances plaintiff may elect establish patent error material demonstrate lack due care ascertaining truth necessarily follow negligence defendant shown proving material false plaintiff demonstrate negligence manner material gathered regardless truth falsity instance presumption falsity prevail unless defendant elects establish truth material thereby insulate liability necessary prove falsity establish negligence defendant burden plaintiff proposition course hold true cases negligence established without demonstration falsity material additional obligation upon plaintiff prove falsity material license gain immeasurable strength courts take suggestion commentators camp nonfalsifiable nature libel entitle defendant summary judgment see franklin bussel plaintiff burden defamation awareness falsity wm mary rev plaintiff suit based upon statement susceptible proved false example deny discovery dismiss complaint parties agree thrust challenged publications thrifty chain connected underworld figures organized crime proposition required proven false brief appellants trial individual plaintiff simply denied knowledge joseph scalleat employment beer sales consultants bsc employment three thrifty stores see testimony maurice hepps tr new york times sullivan privilege subsequently extended public figures see curtis publishing butts warren concurring result issue properly us inclined view public figures bear burden disproving veracity accusations made actual malice new york times used term contrary remarks cases garrison louisiana necessary decisions cases persuade constitutional value truthful statements requires protection defamatory utterances whose truth may ascertained provided new york times test see plainly many deserving plaintiffs including intentionally subjected injury unable surmount barrier new york times test