new york class argued november decided february two new york city police officers observed respondent driving speed limit car cracked windshield traffic violations new york law stopped emerged car approached one officers officer opened car door look vehicle identification number vin located left doorjamb automobiles officer find vin doorjamb reached car interior move papers obscuring area dashboard vin located later model automobiles officer saw handle gun protruding underneath driver seat seized gun respondent arrested state trial denied motion suppress gun evidence respondent convicted criminal possession weapon appellate division new york upheld conviction new york appeals reversed holding absence justification search respondent car besides traffic violations search prohibited gun must accordingly excluded evidence held new york appeals decision rest adequate independent state ground deprive jurisdiction appeals opinion mentions new york constitution direct conjunction federal constitution makes use federal new york cases analysis lacks requisite plain statement rests state grounds moreover determining search question prohibited looked federal constitution state statute authorizes officers demand drivers reveal vin merely holding statute provided justification search pp police officer action searching respondent car violate fourth amendment pp important role played vin pervasive governmental regulation automobiles efforts federal government regulations assure vin placed plain view respondent reasonable expectation privacy vin placement papers obscuring vin insufficient create privacy interest vin pp officer search sufficiently unintrusive constitutionally permissible light respondent lack reasonable expectation privacy vin fact officers observed respondent commit two traffic violations concerns officers safety pp delivered opinion burger blackmun powell rehnquist joined part ii brennan marshall stevens joined powell filed concurring opinion burger joined post brennan filed opinion concurring part dissenting part marshall stevens joined post white filed dissenting opinion stevens joined post steven kartagener argued cause petitioner briefs mario merola marc cogan argued cause pro hac vice respondent brief william hellerstein fred inbau wayne schmidt james manak david crump daniel hales james murphy francis looney filed brief americans effective law enforcement et al amici curiae urging reversal justice delivered opinion case must decide whether order observe vehicle identification number vin generally visible outside automobile police officer may reach passenger compartment vehicle move papers obscuring vin driver stopped traffic violation exited car hold circumstances police officer action violate fourth amendment afternoon may new york city police officers lawrence meyer william mcnamee observed respondent benigno class driving speed limit car cracked windshield driving cracked windshield speeding traffic violations new york law see veh traf law mckinney respondent followed officers ensuing directive pull respondent emerged car approached officer meyer officer mcnamee went directly respondent vehicle respondent provided officer meyer registration certificate proof insurance stated driver license meanwhile officer mcnamee opened door respondent car look vin located left doorjamb automobiles manufactured officer find vin doorjamb reached interior respondent car move papers obscuring area dashboard vin located later model automobiles officer mcnamee saw handle gun protruding one inch underneath driver seat officer seized gun respondent promptly arrested respondent also issued summonses traffic violations undisputed police officers reason suspect respondent car stolen contained contraband respondent committed offense traffic violations disputed respondent committed traffic violations charged day arrest issued valid driver license state trial denied motion suppress gun evidence respondent convicted criminal possession weapon third degree see penal law mckinney appellate division new york upheld conviction without opinion app div new york appeals reversed reasoned police officer intrusion undertaken obtain information exposed hidden areas car therefore constituted search although recognized search vin generally involves minimal intrusion limited potential locations agreed compelling law enforcement interest positively identifying vehicles involved accidents automobile thefts thought decisive facts case reveal reason officer suspect criminal activity besides traffic infractions act protect safety state statutory provision authorizes officers demand drivers reveal vin provided justification officer entry respondent car officer taken advantage statute asked see vin respondent moved papers away intrusion occurred absence justification search besides traffic infractions new york appeals ruled gun must excluded evidence granted certiorari reverse ii respondent asserts without jurisdiction hear case decision new york appeals rests adequate independent state ground disagree opinion new york appeals mentions new york constitution direct conjunction constitution cf michigan long opinion makes use federal new york cases analysis generally citing proposition see opinion lacks requisite plain statement rests state grounds michigan long supra accordingly holding michigan long directly applicable hen state decision fairly appears rest primarily federal law interwoven federal law adequacy independence possible state law ground clear face opinion accept reasonable explanation state decided case way believed federal law required respondent claim opinion rested independent adequate state statutory grounds also without merit new york appeals hold new york vehicle traffic law prohibited search issue rejecting assertion petitioner merely held provided justification search emphasis added determining police officer action prohibited looked federal constitution state statute moreover new york adheres general rule statutory construction resolve case courts decide constitutional issues see ashwander tva brandeis concurring peters new york city housing authority since new york appeals discussed statutory constitutional grounds may infer believed statutory issue insufficient resolve case discussion statute therefore constituted independent adequate state ground iii officer observing respondent commit two traffic violations exit car attempted determine vin respondent automobile reaching remove papers obscuring vin officer intruded passenger compartment vehicle vin consists dozen digits unique vehicle required cars trucks see cfr vin roughly analogous serial number deciphered reveal place automobile manufacturer production run also make model engine type place manufacture vehicle see vin significant thread web regulation automobile see generally fed reg ease vin allows identification particular vehicle assists various levels government many ways federal government vin improves efficacy recall campaigns assists researchers determining risks driving various makes models automobiles combination state insurance laws vin reduces number injured accidents go uncompensated lack insurance conjunction state registration requirements safety inspections vin helps ensure automobile operators driving safe vehicles making automobile theft difficult vin safeguards property also life limb see fed reg noting stolen vehicles disproportionately likely involved automobile accidents facilitate vin usefulness laudable governmental purposes federal law requires vin placed plain view someone outside automobile vin passenger cars manufactured shall located inside passenger compartment shall readable without moving part vehicle vehicle glazing daylight lighting conditions observer vision snellen whose eye point located outside vehicle adjacent left windshield pillar character vin subject paragraph shall minimum height mm cfr emphasis added citizen surrender protections fourth amendment entering automobile see delaware prouse supra nonetheless state intrusion particular area whether automobile elsewhere result fourth amendment violation unless area one constitutionally protected reasonable expectation privacy katz harlan concurring see oliver maryland macon recognized physical characteristics automobile use result lessened expectation privacy therein one lesser expectation privacy motor vehicle function transportation seldom serves one residence repository personal effects car little capacity escaping public scrutiny travels public thoroughfares occupants contents plain view cardwell lewis plurality opinion automobiles unlike homes subject pervasive continuing governmental regulation controls including periodic inspection licensing requirements everyday occurrence police stop examine vehicles license plates inspection stickers expired violations exhaust fumes excessive noise noted headlights safety equipment proper working order south dakota opperman factors generally diminish reasonable expectation privacy automobiles applicable fortiori vin discussed vin plays important part pervasive regulation government automobile motorist must surely expect regulation occasion require state determine vin vehicle individual reasonable expectation privacy vin thereby diminished especially true case driver committed traffic violation see delaware prouse supra foremost method enforcing traffic vehicle safety regulations acting upon observed violations vehicle stops traffic violations occur countless times day occasions licenses registration papers subject inspection drivers without ascertained emphasis added addition unreasonable expectation privacy object required law located place ordinarily plain view exterior automobile vin mandated visibility makes similar exterior car trunk glove compartment exterior car course thrust public eye thus examine constitute search see cardwell lewis supra sum important role played vin pervasive governmental regulation automobile efforts federal government ensure vin placed plain view hold reasonable expectation privacy vin think makes difference papers respondent car obscured vin plain view officer recently emphasized efforts restrict access area generate reasonable expectation privacy none otherwise exist see oliver supra placement trespassing signs secluded property create legitimate privacy interest marihuana fields object issue identification number behind transparent windshield automobile driven upon public roads believe placement obscuring papers insufficient create privacy interest vin mere viewing formerly obscured vin therefore violation fourth amendment evidence respondent sought suppressed vin however gun handle officer saw interior car reaching papers covered vin interior automobile subject expectations privacy exist respect one home car interior whole nonetheless subject fourth amendment protection unreasonable intrusions police agree new york appeals intrusion space constituted search cf delaware prouse topping automobile detaining occupants constitute seizure even though purpose stop limited resulting detention quite brief must decide therefore whether search constitutionally permissible respondent remained car police justified asking move papers obscuring vin new york law authorizes demand officers see vin see even state law explicit point difficulty concluding demand inspect vin like demand see license registration papers within scope police authority pursuant traffic violation stop see prouse supra respondent stayed vehicle acceded request officer officer needed intrude passenger compartment respondent chose however exit vehicle without removing papers covered vin officer chose conduct search without asking respondent return car must therefore decide whether officer acted within bounds fourth amendment conducting search hold keeping driver vehicle car routine traffic stop probably typical police practice see schultz hunt traffic investigation enforcement nonetheless concern safety police held officers may consistent fourth amendment exercise discretion require driver commits traffic violation exit vehicle even though lack particularized reason believing driver possesses weapon pennsylvania mimms per curiam impute respondent propensity violence conscious fact respondent voluntarily left vehicle facts case may used illustrate one principal justifications discretion given police officers pennsylvania mimms driver seat respondent loaded pistol hand mimms allows officer guard possibility requiring driver exit car briefly clearly mimms also allowed officers detain respondent briefly outside car voluntarily exited completed investigation question remains however whether officers effect seizure respondent necessary detain briefly outside vehicle also effect search vin may necessary detention pistol beneath seat course disappear respondent closed car door behind returned respondent immediately automobile placed officers situation holding mimms allows officers avoid permitting individual detained possible access dangerous weapon benefit partial concealment provided car exterior see pennsylvania mimms supra light danger officers safety presented returning respondent immediately car think search obtain vin prohibited fourth amendment fourth amendment terms prohibits unreasonable searches seizures noted ready test determining reasonableness balancing need search seize invasion search seizure entails camara municipal justifying particular intrusion police officer must able point specific articulable facts taken together rational inferences facts justifiably warrant intrusion terry ohio omitted brackets terry officer safety less directly served detention something objectively justifiable suspicion necessary justify intrusion balance tip favor legality governmental intrusion pennsylvania mimms supra officers personally observed seized individual commission traffic offense requesting exit vehicle michigan summers officers obtained warrant search house person seized leaving came upon facts pennsylvania mimms michigan summers differ respects facts case similarities strong enough balancing governmental interests governmental intrusion undertaken cases also appropriate three factors involved mimms summers present case safety officers served governmental intrusion intrusion minimal search stemmed probable cause focusing suspicion individual affected search indeed officers probable cause stemmed directly observing respondent commit violation law undertake necessary balancing nature quality intrusion individual fourth amendment interests importance governmental interests alleged justify intrusion place conclusion search permissible follows recognized delaware prouse governmental interest highway safety served obtaining vin first order particular method obtaining vin justified concern officers safety critical issue intrusiveness government action place supra blackmun concurring judgment also weighs favor allowing search search focused objective intrusive necessary fulfill objective search far less intrusive formal arrest permissible traffic offense new york law see veh traf law mckinney supp crim proc law mckinney little intrusive demand respondent eyes officers move papers vin clear initial objective officer law present one two locations either inside doorjamb atop dashboard thus ordinarily plain view someone outside automobile neither locations subject reasonable expectation privacy officer checked locations two locations officer root interior respondent automobile proceeding examine vin reach compartments open containers even intrude interior checked doorjamb vin intrude officer simply reached directly unprotected space vin located move offending papers hold search sufficiently unintrusive constitutionally permissible light lack reasonable expectation privacy vin fact officers observed respondent commit two traffic violations conclusion expose police officers potentially grave risks without significantly reducing intrusiveness ultimate conduct viewing vin said officers entitled part undoubtedly justified traffic stop note holding today authorize police officers enter vehicle obtain vin vin visible outside automobile vin plain view someone outside vehicle justification governmental intrusion passenger compartment see judgment new york appeals reversed case remanded proceedings inconsistent opinion ordered petitioner invites us hold respondent status unlicensed driver deprived reasonable expectations privacy vehicle officers within discretion prohibited respondent driving car away impounded car later conducted inventory search thereof cf south dakota opperman police may conduct inventory search car impounded multiple parking violations nix williams discussing inevitable discovery exception exclusionary rule petitioner also argues fourth amendment violation police arrested respondent see veh traf law mckinney supp crim proc law mckinney searched passenger compartment time arrest cf new york belton arrested respondent searched car impounding pursuant arrest see cady dombrowski however reach questions justice powell chief justice joins concurring join opinion write emphasize unique important governmental interests served inspection vehicle identification number vin officer making lawful stop vehicle right duty inspect vin vin visible outside vehicle voluntarily disclosed driver officer may enter vehicle extent necessary read vin explains vin essentially serial number identifying certain features vehicle affixed provides effective reliable means positive identification vehicle vin occupies central position elaborate federal state regulation automobiles frequently depends positive identification federal regulations direct manufacturers place vin location plain view observer standing outside vehicle cfr answered correctly question presented case applying conventional fourth amendment analysis believe however officer efforts observe vin need subjected scrutiny courts properly apply police intruded vehicle arrest search evidence crime officer lawfully stopped motor vehicle traffic infraction officer entitled inspect license registration documents see delaware prouse pennsylvania mimms per curiam unquestionably officer also may look windshield observe vin record without implicating fourth amendment concerns respondent contend reasonably contended action violates federal constitution question raised facts case therefore whether fourth amendment offended incremental intrusion resulting officer efforts observe vin respondent vehicle lawfully stopped cf pennsylvania mimms supra problem officer vin located dashboard behind windshield obscured papers sequence events transpired well stated opinion suffice say respondent left vehicle talk one officers officer sought determine vin automobile officer duty required see vin outside car driver exited vehicle officer entered car extent necessary move papers covering vin observed handgun protruding beneath front seat appeals new york held intrusion unlawful search agreeing search occurred today sustains officer action reasoning familiar cases applying fourth amendment principles automobiles view fourth amendment question may stated simply whether officer efforts inspect vin reasonable finding case officer entry respondent vehicle opening door reaching hand dashboard reasonably necessary achieve lawful purpose respondent remained seat observes officer properly requested remove papers obstructing vin absence compliance request arrest lawful cf people ellis lawful traffic stop officers properly arrested driver failure produce license identification view important public purposes served vin system minimal expectation privacy vin hold police officer lawfully stops motor vehicle may inspect vin remove obstruction preventing inspection driver vehicle either unwilling unable cooperate suggest course fourth amendment inapplicable context officer may use vin inspection pretext searching vehicle contraband weapons may officer undertake entry extensive reasonably necessary remove obstruction read vin justice brennan justice marshall justice stevens join concurring part dissenting part agree decision new york appeals rest adequate independent state ground see michigan long therefore join part ii opinion also agree police conducted search respondent vehicle inspect vehicle identification number vin ante however disagree search constitutionally permissible extent respectfully dissent facts bear repetition officers meyer mcnamee pulled respondent observing commit minor traffic violations respondent emerged car closed door joined officer meyer rear vehicle respondent gave officer meyer car registration certificate proof insurance driver license meanwhile without first examining documents unaware respondent driver license officer mcnamee opened door car look vin doorjamb finding reached inside remove papers obstructing view vin dashboard mcnamee saw gun handle protruding underneath driver seat respondent arrested eventually convicted criminal possession weapon issued summonses traffic violations mcnamee conducted search even though undisputed police officers reason suspect respondent car stolen contained contraband respondent committed offense traffic violations ante ii fourth amendment guarantees right people secure persons houses papers effects unreasonable searches seizures fundamental right preserved requirement searches conducted pursuant warrant issued independent judicial officer california carney found fourth amendment violation certain warrantless police searches cars see carroll narrow exception applies searches vehicles supported probable cause ross officer mcnamee search respondent car clearly without probable cause therefore patently unconstitutional contrary holding rests reasoning logic grounded fourth amendment jurisprudence rather strained irrelevant analysis substitute absence probable cause struggles balance governmental interest highway safety served obtaining vin concern officers safety nature quality intrusion took place ante takes long step toward balancing oblivion protections fourth amendment affords michigan long supra brennan dissenting police justification whatever let alone probable cause search vin therefore amount balancing make search respondent car constitutional says much important role played vin pervasive governmental regulation automobile holds respondent reasonable expectation privacy vin ante aspect analysis particularly baffling course vin plays significant part federal state schemes regulating automobiles federal regulations require vehicle manufacturers install vins may read outside passenger compartment see cfr however even assuming respondent reasonable expectation privacy vin relevant question decide officer mcnamee look vin outside respondent vehicle searched car without respondent consent order locate vin focusing object search vin misses issue must decide whether interior search car discover object constitutional regardless whether reasonable expectation privacy vin respondent clearly retained reasonable expectation privacy respect area searched police car interior noted fact certain information must kept may public nature automatically sanction police intrusion private space order obtain cf noting state law requires drivers furnish police vehicle identification vehicles mobile subject pervasive government regulation individual justifiable expectation privacy vehicle less home california carney supra held warrantless searches cars may sometimes violate fourth amendment searches supported probable cause see carroll supra ross supra individual operating traveling automobile lose reasonable expectation privacy simply automobile use subject government regulation delaware prouse see also carroll doctrine declare field day police searching automobiles fourth amendment constrains state authority search automobiles guise regulation fact government uses vin part scheme regulating automobiles insufficient justify search passenger compartment retrieve information rather ordinarily case car search vin search must supported probable cause see supra automobile automobile must probable cause search eliminate requirement officer able explain reasons actions leaves police discretion utterly without limits pennsylvania mimms stevens dissenting case police clearly lacked probable cause search vin suggests respondent traffic infractions provided requisite probable cause ground probable cause focusing suspicion individual affected search ante analysis makes mockery fourth amendment question respondent traffic offenses gave police probable cause stop car demand form vehicle identification delaware prouse supra sort routine traffic stop generally gives police opportunity inspect vin car windshield fourth amendment protections evaporate supplies requisite probable cause search vin visible exterior car plainly search interior vin unnecessary since respondent supplied car registration certificate suggestion inadequate supplies iota reasoning support holding respondent traffic infractions gave police probable cause search vin content simply conclude governmental interest highway safety served obtaining vin first order ante although agree government strong interest promoting highway safety see delaware prouse supra fail see vin search conducted advanced interest despite lengthy exposition variety purposes served vin respondent car searched identified interests officers intended identify considered unsafe vehicle done without searching respondent car thus mere fact state utilizes vin conjunction regulations designed promote highway safety give police reason search information every time motorist violates traffic law absent reason search vin government admittedly strong interest promoting highway safety validate intrusion resulting search respondent vehicle iii relying pennsylvania mimms supra michigan summers next attempts support holding ground light danger officers safety presented returning respondent immediately car uncover vin search obtain vin prohibited fourth amendment ante neither cited decision supports argument summers police detained occupant home searched pursuant valid warrant held seizure constitutional served several important law enforcement interests including officer safety search warrant provided reasonable basis police determine occupant engaged criminal activity therefore detained contrast reason officers search car inspect vin officers knew respondent committed minor traffic violations may given opportunity inspect vin provide reason search interior car mimms police stopped automobile traffic infraction ordered driver step outside vehicle driver emerged officers noticed large bulge jacket frisking discovered loaded revolver held actions protected officer safety police legitimately order driver car made lawful traffic stop unlike situation mimms intrusion case search respondent vehicle directly serve officer safety nevertheless finds returned respondent immediately automobile clear papers dashboard obscuring vin placed officers situation holding mimms allows officers avoid ante forgets police reason search interior reason return respondent car thus state interest protecting officer safety validate search course officers reasonable grounds suspect traffic stop presented threat safety authorized search respondent vehicle weapons see michigan long however neither officer ever suggested situation posed danger specifically found facts reveal reason officer act protect safety absence even slightest suspicion danger search respondent car justified grounds officer safety iv finally finds critical issue intrusiveness government action also weighs favor allowing search ante effort minimize extent intrusion see ante wo wash officer mcnamee clearly searched respondent car opening door reaching passenger compartment remove papers dashboard even engage excavation search exposed areas passenger compartment visible outside vehicle narrow intrusions involved terry ohio progeny judged balancing test rather general principle fourth amendment seizures must supported standards probable cause intrusions fell far short kind intrusion associated arrest dunaway new york search conducted substantially intrusive ordinary traffic stop starkly exposes impropriety strained effort sanction mcnamee patently illegal search balancing approach place justice blackmun noted concern emerging tendency part convert terry decision general statement fourth amendment requires seizure reasonable cf brennan concurring result kolender lawson brennan concurring florida royer brennan concurring result event even limited search justified balancing extent intrusion importance governmental interests allegedly served alone legalize search respondent car situations approved limited intrusions less probable cause always required police officer able point specific articulable facts taken together rational inferences facts reasonably warrant intrusion terry ohio see michigan long supra police must reasonable belief suspect dangerous may gain immediate control weapons search areas passenger compartment weapons may placed hidden delaware prouse police must reasonable suspicion motorist unlicensed car unregistered either vehicle occupant otherwise subject seizure stop automobile detain driver police must reasonable suspicion vehicle contains illegal aliens order stop car question occupants citizenship case respondent traffic infractions give police reason search vin police offered justification reasonably warrant intrusion sum decision today still another steps road evisceration protections fourth amendment willingness sanction car search police probable cause conduct highlights trend however find holding particularly disturbing none factors relies upon lack reasonable expectation privacy vin officers observing respondent commit minor traffic violations government interest promoting highway safety shielding officers danger allegedly limited nature search took place gave police reason search vin disregards admonition justice jackson fourth amendment rights mere rights belong catalog indispensable freedoms among deprivations rights none effective cowing population crushing spirit individual putting terror every heart uncontrolled search seizure one first effective weapons arsenal every arbitrary government brinegar dissenting opinion footnotes notes ease vin allows identification particular vehicle assists various levels government many ways ante examples explains vin improves efficacy recall campaigns assists researchers determining risks driving various makes models automobiles helps reduc number injured accidents go uncompensated lack insurance ensures automobile operators driving safe vehicles making automobile theft difficult safeguards property also life limb ibid analogy respondent emerged car without vehicle registration certificate driver license read opinion hold police searched passenger compartment order locate documents even though also play important roles state regulation automobiles important reasons balancing inquiries conducted except limited circumstances place brennan concurring result protections intended framers easily disappear consideration balancing multifarious circumstances presented different cases dunaway new york general rule framers fourth amendment balanced interests involved decided seizure reasonable supported judicial warrant based probable cause place supra blackmun concurring judgment justice powell concurring opinion joined chief justice find vin visible outside vehicle voluntarily disclosed driver officer may enter vehicle extent necessary read vin ante even agree standard case officer mcnamee searched respondent car without ever asking voluntarily disclose vin location justice white justice stevens joins dissenting police officer involved case entered interior respondent automobile area protected fourth amendment unreasonable searches seizures car may searched without warrant probable cause one suggests precondition search existed entry solely remove obstruction prevented vin seen outside car issue whether governmental interest obtaining vin entering protected area sufficient outweigh owner privacy interest interior car unprepared least reasons gives conclude class remained car refused officer order turn registration certificate remove article obscuring vin justification entering interior car necessary read vin enter search registration certificate glove compartment may cases class sanctioned refusal case never held refusal permit search glove compartment even different refusal entry find registration certificate case one different kind refusal nothing nonconsensual entry search without probable cause without emergent circumstances makes difference law requires vin visible outside car otherwise requirement vin carried prominent location trunk car justify searches area whenever stop traffic violation thus join opinion effect holds search car vin permissible whenever legal stop whether driver even asked consent nevertheless class unlicensed police constitutionally required merely give citation let unlicensed driving continue arguably one officers legally driven car away process noticed gun car towed inspected station class arrested driving without license entire car searched eschews possible alternative rationales rests judgment grounds accept