federal aviation administration et al cooper argued november decided march respondent cooper licensed pilot failed disclose human immunodeficiency virus hiv diagnosis federal aviation administration faa time agency issue medical certificates required operate aircraft persons hiv subsequently respondent applied social security administration ssa received disability benefits basis hiv status thereafter renewed certificate faa several occasions time intentionally withholding information condition department transportation dot faa parent agency launched joint criminal investigation ssa identify medically unfit individuals obtained faa certifications dot provided ssa names licensed pilots ssa turn provided dot spreadsheet containing information pilots also received disability benefits respondent name appeared spreadsheet investigation led admission intentionally withheld information hiv status faa pilot certificate revoked indicted making false statements government agency pleaded guilty fined sentenced probation filed suit alleging faa dot ssa violated privacy act contains detailed set requirements management records held executive branch agencies act allows aggrieved individual sue actual damages government intentionally willfully violates act requirements way adversely affect individual specifically respondent claimed unlawful disclosure dot confidential medical information caused mental emotional distress district concluded government violated act finding term actual damages ambiguous relied sovereign immunity canon provides sovereign immunity waivers must strictly construed government favor hold act authorize recovery nonpecuniary damages reversing district ninth circuit concluded actual damages act ambiguous includes damages mental emotional distress held privacy act unequivocally authorize damages mental emotional distress therefore waive government sovereign immunity liability harms pp waiver sovereign immunity must unequivocally expressed statutory text see lane peña ambiguities construed favor immunity williams ambiguity exists plausible interpretation statute allow money damages government nordic village pp term actual damages privacy act legal term art congress employs term art knows adopts cluster ideas attached borrowed word body learning taken molzof even legal term precise meaning actual damages far clear although term sometimes understood include nonpecuniary harm also used construed narrowly cover damages pecuniary harm term quality must considered particular context appears pp privacy act serves interests similar protected defamation privacy torts remedial provision plaintiffs recover minimum award first prove least actual damages parallels torts libel per quod slander plaintiffs recover general damages first prove special damages doe chao special damages limited actual pecuniary loss must specially pleaded proved general damages cover nonpecuniary loss need pleaded proved parallel suggests possibility congress intended term actual damages mean special damages thus barring privacy act victims recovery unless first show actual pecuniary harm congress choose actual damages instead special damages without precedent terms occasionally used interchangeably furthermore doubt plausibility construing actual damages special damages privacy act put rest congress deliberate refusal allow recovery general damages defamation privacy cases special damages category compensatory damages general damages congress declined authorize general damages reasonable infer congress intended term actual damages act mean special proven pecuniary loss pp although contrary reading privacy act accepted ninth circuit advanced respondent inconceivable plausible read act authorizing damages economic loss congress speak unequivocally adopts interpretation actual damages limited proven pecuniary harm otherwise expand scope congress sovereign immunity waiver beyond statutory text clearly requires respondent raises several counterarguments cases often define actual damages mean compensatory damages elimination general damages privacy act means recovery presumed damages plaintiffs still recover proven mental emotional distress courts construed actual damages similar statutes include mental emotional distress congress must intended actual damages act include mental emotional distress well precluding nonpecuniary damages lead absurd results thereby frustrating act remedial purpose none arguments overcomes sovereign canon pp reversed remanded alito delivered opinion roberts scalia kennedy thomas joined sotomayor filed dissenting opinion ginsburg breyer joined kagan took part consideration decision case opinion notice opinion subject formal revision publication preliminary print reports readers requested notify reporter decisions washington typographical formal errors order corrections may made preliminary print goes press federal aviation administration et petitioners stanmore cawthon cooper writ certiorari appeals ninth circuit march justice alito delivered opinion privacy act codified part contains comprehensive detailed set requirements management confidential records held executive branch agencies agency fails comply requirements way adverse effect individual act authorizes individual bring civil action agency violations found intentional willful liable actual damages case must decide whether term actual damages used privacy act includes damages mental emotional distress hold federal aviation administration faa requires pilots obtain pilot certificate medical certificate precondition operating aircraft cfr pilots must periodically renew medical certificates ensure compliance faa medical standards see applying renewal pilots must disclose illnesses disabilities surgeries must identify medications taking see cfr pt respondent stanmore cooper private pilot since diagnosed human immunodeficiency virus hiv infection began taking antiretroviral medication time faa issue medical certificates persons respondent condition knowing qualify renewal medical certificate respondent initially grounded chose apply however applied received medical certificate without disclosing hiv status medication renewed certificate time intentionally withholding information condition respondent health deteriorated applied disability benefits title ii social security act et seq substantiate claim disclosed hiv status social security administration ssa awarded benefits year august august department transportation dot faa parent agency launched joint criminal investigation ssa known operation safe pilot identify medically unfit individuals obtained faa certifications fly dot gave ssa list names identifying information licensed pilots northern california ssa compared list records benefit recipients compiled spreadsheet gave dot spreadsheet revealed respondent current medical certificate also received disability benefits reviewing respondent faa medical file ssa disability file faa flight surgeons determined faa issued medical certificate respondent known true medical condition investigators confronted respondent discovered admitted intentionally withheld faa information hiv status relevant medical information fraudulent omissions faa revoked respondent pilot certificate indicted three counts making false statements government agency violation respondent ultimately pleaded guilty one count making delivering false official writing violation sentenced two years probation fined claiming faa dot ssa hereinafter government violated privacy act sharing records one another respondent filed suit district northern district california alleged unlawful disclosure dot confidential medical information including hiv status caused humiliation embarrassment mental anguish fear social ostracism severe emotional distress app pet cert notably allege pecuniary economic loss district granted summary judgment respondent supp concluded government violated privacy act triable issue fact whether violation intentional held respondent recover damages alleged mental emotional harm economic loss finding term actual damages facially ambiguous relying sovereign immunity canon provides waivers sovereign immunity must strictly construed favor government concluded act authorize recovery damages government nonpecuniary mental emotional harm appeals ninth circuit reversed remanded acknowledged term actual damages meaning changes specific statute found nevertheless held used privacy act term includes damages mental emotional distress looking described ntrinsic xtrinsic sources concluded meaning actual damages privacy act ambiguous construction limits recovery pecuniary loss plausible government petitioned rehearing rehearing en banc divided denied petition government petitioned certiorari granted review ii respondent seeks recover monetary compensation government mental emotional harm must decide whether civil remedies provision privacy act waives government sovereign immunity respect recovery said many occasions waiver sovereign immunity must unequivocally expressed statutory text see lane peña nordic village irwin department veterans affairs legislative history supply waiver clearly evident language statute lane supra ambiguities statutory language construed favor immunity williams government consent sued never enlarged beyond fair reading text requires ruckelshaus sierra club citing eastern transp ambiguity exists plausible interpretation statute authorize money damages government nordic village supra question confronts us whether congress consented sued damages privacy act much clear statute expressly authorizes recovery government actual damages rather question issue concerns scope waiver reason refuse enforce waiver unambiguously expressed statute also construe ambiguities scope waiver favor sovereign lane supra although canon interpretation requires unmistakable statutory expression congressional intent waive government immunity congress need state intent particular way never required congress use magic words contrary observed sovereign immunity canon tool interpreting law displac traditional tools statutory construction richlin security service chertoff thus require scope congress waiver clearly discernable statutory text light traditional interpretive tools take interpretation favorable government civil remedies provision privacy act provides intentional willful refusal failure comply act shall liable actual damages sustained individual result refusal failure case shall person entitled recovery receive less sum congress define actual damages respondent urges us rely ordinary meaning word actual defined standard dictionaries appeals explained actual damages legal term art cardinal rule statutory construction congress employs term art presumably knows adopts cluster ideas attached borrowed word body learning taken molzof quoting morissette even legal term however meaning actual damages far clear latest edition black law dictionary available congress enacted privacy act defined actual damages eal substantial damages amount awarded complainant compensation actual real loss injury opposed one hand damages damages black law dictionary rev ed general notably circular definition little value appeals accurately observed precise meaning term changes specific statute found term sometimes understood include nonpecuniary harm take instance courts interpretations fair housing act fha fair credit reporting act fcra number courts construed actual damages remedial provisions statutes include compensation mental emotional distress see seaton sky realty authorizing compensatory damages fha predecessor humiliation steele title realty stating damages fha limited losses may include award emotional distress humiliation thompson san antonio retail merchants per curiam explaining ven expenses humiliation mental distress constitute recoverable elements damage fcra millstone reports approving award damages fcra loss sleep nervousness frustration mental anguish contexts however term used construed narrowly authorize damages pecuniary harm provision federal tort claims act ftca example congress authorized actual compensatory damages measured pecuniary injuries resulting death least one defined actual damages copyright act ed extent market value copyrighted work injured destroyed infringement frank music see also mackie rieser holding feelings nature infringement place actual damages calculus courts construed actual damages securities exchange act mean form economic loss ryan foster marshall see also osofsky zipf stating purpose compensate civil plaintiffs economic loss suffered result wrongs committed violation act herpich wallace noting gist action damages act economic injury term actual damages quality rely definition must consider particular context term privacy act directs agencies establish safeguards protect individuals disclosure confidential records result substantial harm embarrassment inconvenience unfairness individual information maintained see also stat stating purpose act provide certain safeguards individual invasion personal privacy act serves interests similar protected defamation privacy torts good reason infer congress relied upon torts drafting act doe chao held privacy act remedial provision authorizes plaintiffs recover guaranteed minimum award violations act prove least actual damages see although address meaning actual damages observed provision parallels remedial scheme torts libel per quod slander plaintiffs recover general damages prove special harm also known special damages see also restatement torts comments hereinafter restatement dobbs law remedies pp hereinafter dobbs special damages limited actual pecuniary loss must specially pleaded proved haggard cooley torts ed hereinafter cooley general damages hand cover loss reputation shame mortification injury feelings like need alleged detail require proof parallel privacy act torts libel per quod slander suggests possibility congress intended term actual damages act mean special damages basic idea privacy act victims like victims libel per quod slander barred recovery unless first show actual pecuniary material harm upon showing pecuniary harm matter slight recover statutory minimum presumably unproven harm congress choose use term actual damages instead special damages without precedent terms occasionally used interchangeably see wetzel gulf oil holding plaintiff establish libel per quod introduce valid sufficient evidence actual damage electric furnace deering milliken research stating libel per quod standing alone without proof actual damages support verdict plaintiff furniture sales edward de bartolo md case words conduct actionable per quod injurious effect must established allegations proof special damage cases necessary plead show words actions defamatory must also appear words conduct caused actual damage clementson minnesota tribune distinguishing actual sometimes termed damages general damages damages pecuniary nature doubt plausibility construing actual damages privacy act synonymously special damages put rest congress refusal authorize general damages uncodified section act congress established privacy protection study commission consider among things whether federal government liable general damages iii stat note following explained doe congress left question general damages another day although commission later recommended general damages allowed congress never amended act include reason held beyond serious doubt general damages available violations privacy act authorizing recovery actual general damages congress made clear viewed terms mutually exclusive actions defamation related dignitary torts two categories compensatory damages recoverable general damages special damages cooley see also restatement comment noting damages interference privacy awarded way general damages given defamation congress declined authorize general damages think likely congress intended actual damages privacy act mean special damages proven pecuniary loss surprisingly interpretation accepted privacy protection study commission expert body authorized congress highly sensitive act goals commission understood actual damages act synonym special damages term used defamation cases personal privacy information society report privacy protection study commission july see also ibid legislative history language act suggest congress meant restrict recovery specific pecuniary losses commission weigh propriety extending standard recovery although bound way commission report think confirms reasonableness interpreting actual damages unique context privacy act equivalent special damages claim contrary reading statute accepted appeals advanced respondent inconceivable privacy act waives federal government sovereign immunity question must answer whether plausible read statute government authorize damages economic loss nordic village waiving government sovereign immunity congress must speak unequivocally lane conclude consequence adopt interpretation actual damages limited proven pecuniary economic harm otherwise expand scope congress sovereign immunity waiver beyond statutory text clearly requires iii none respondent contrary arguments suffices overcome sovereign immunity canon respondent notes term actual damages often defined broadly cases include compensatory damages see brief respondent example birdsall coolidge patent infringement case observed ompensatory damages actual damages mean thing ibid gertz robert welch wrote actual injury defamation context limited loss customarily includes impairment reputation standing community personal humiliation mental anguish suffering cases others cited respondent stand unremarkable point term actual damages include nonpecuniary loss generic meaning establish requisite clarity privacy act distinctive features authorizes damages mental emotional distress already explained term actual damages takes different meanings different contexts respondent stronger argument exclusion general damages statute simply means recovery presumed damages privacy act victims still recover mental emotional distress says respondent long proved see brief respondent argument flawed suggests proven mental emotional distress count general damages term general damages limited compensation unproven injuries includes compensation proven injuries well see restatement comment noting general damages compensate harm proved absence proof assumed caused plaintiff reputation sure specific proof emotional harm required recover general damages dignitary torts dobbs follow general damages recovered emotional harm actually proved aside fact general damages need proved distinguishes damages whether proved category compensatory damages available relevant suits type harm defamation privacy cases affront plaintiff dignity emotional harm done called general damages distinguish proof actual economic harm called special damages see also supra nn therefore converse general damages special damages proven damages respondent congress removed general damages act remedial provision reasonable infer congress foreclosed recovery nonpecuniary harm even harm proved instead waived government sovereign immunity respect harm compensable special damages looking beyond privacy act text respondent points use term actual damages remedial provisions fha fcra previously mentioned courts held actual damages within meaning statutes include compensation mental emotional distress supra citing rule construction congress intends language similar statutes meaning see northcross board ed memphis city schools per curiam respondent argues privacy act also interpreted authorizing damages mental emotional distress see brief respondent assuming sake argument lower decisions correct provide weak support respondent argument since term actual damages mean different things different contexts statutes privacy act provide limited interpretive aid especially true neither fha fcra contains text precisely mirrors privacy neither statutes congress specifically decline authorize recovery general damages privacy act supra importantly none lower cases interpreting statutes respondent cited see brief respondent involves sovereign immunity canon respondent also points ftca ftca general liability provision even use term actual damages instead provides shall liable certain tort claims manner extent private individual relevant state law reason alone ftca general liability provision reliable source interpreting term actual damages privacy act ftca wrongfuldeath provision authorizes actual compensatory damages measured pecuniary injuries resulting death prove congress understood term actual damages privacy act include nonpecuniary mental emotional harm contrary proves actual damages understood entail pecuniary harm depending context ftca like fha fcra share text design privacy act fitting analog construing act finally respondent argues excluding damages mental emotional harm lead absurd results persons suffering relatively minor pecuniary loss entitled recover others suffering severe debilitating mental emotional distress get nothing see brief respondent contrary respondent suggestion however nothing absurd scheme limits government privacy act liability harm substantiated proof tangible economic loss respondent insists scheme frustrate privacy act remedial purpose ignores fact deliberately refusing authorize general damages congress intended cabin relief maximize sum applying traditional rules construction hold privacy act unequivocally authorize award damages mental emotional distress accordingly act waive federal government sovereign immunity liability harms therefore reverse judgment appeals ninth circuit remand case proceedings consistent opinion ordered justice kagan took part consideration decision case sotomayor dissenting federal aviation administration et petitioners stanmore cawthon cooper writ certiorari appeals ninth circuit march justice sotomayor justice ginsburg justice breyer join dissenting congress enacted privacy act stated purpose safeguarding individual privacy government invasion end act provides civil remedy entitling individuals adversely affected certain agency misconduct recover actual damages sustained result unlawful action today holds actual damages limited pecuniary loss consequently individuals longer recover precedents common sense understand primary often damages sustained result invasion privacy namely mental emotional distress result odds text structure drafting history act cripples act core purpose redressing deterring violations privacy interests respectfully dissent majority concludes actual damages provision privacy act allows recovery pecuniary loss alone concedes interpretation compelled plain text statute otherwise required traditional tool statutory interpretation candidly acknowledges contrary reading inconceivable ante yet considers reading actual damages plausible majority contends canon sovereign immunity requires adoption interpretation favorable government ibid canon simply bear weight majority ascribes sovereign immunity canon canon construction tool interpreting law never held displaces traditional tools statutory construction richlin security service chertoff opinion alito traditional tools statutory construction statute text structure drafting history purpose provide clear answer term actual damages permits recovery injuries established competent evidence record whether pecuniary nonpecuniary encompasses damages mental emotional distress need seek refuge canon construction see declining rely canon ambiguity left us construe application traditional tools statutory interpretation considerations stare decisis much less one used haphazardly history see nordic village stevens dissenting canon nothing rule sometimes favored sometimes disfavored collecting cases bears emphasis said repeatedly take upon extend waiver sovereign immunity beyond congress intended either assume authority narrow waiver congress intended kubrick emphasis added see also block neal exemption sovereign suit involves hardship enough consent withheld add rigor refinement construction consent announced internal quotation marks omitted privacy act congress expressly authorized recovery actual damages certain intentional willful agency misconduct guardian treasury import immunity back statute designed limit indian towing ii statutory construction case beginning point must language statute statute speaks clarity issue judicial inquiry statute meaning extraordinary circumstance finished estate cowart nicklos drilling language provision privacy act clear time congress drafted act black law dictionary defined actual damages eal substantial damages amount awarded complainant compensation actual real loss injury ynonymous damages black law dictionary rev ed hereinafter black majority claims general notably circular definition ante unclear definition plain enough actual damages compensate actual injury thus term synonymous compensatory damages see black defining compensatory damages damages compensate injured party injury sustained nothing simply make good replace loss caused wrong injury nothing circular definition adopted century ago recognized ompensatory damages actual damages mean thing damages shall result injury alleged proved amount awarded shall precisely commensurate injury suffered birdsall coolidge definition embraced current legal dictionaries see black ed defining actual damages amount awarded complainant compensate proven injury loss damages repay actual also termed compensatory damages tangible damages real damages italics omitted definition accords plain ordinary meaning term see webster third new international dictionary defining actual existing fact reality damages compensation satisfaction imposed law wrong injury caused violation legal right thus term art plain meaning actual damages connotes compensation proven injuries losses nothing use phrase indicates proven injuries need pecuniary nature majority discards asserted ground precise meaning term specific statute found ante quoting context course relevant statutory interpretation may provide clues congress employ word phrase ordinary meaning interpretive rule however render irrelevant majority ordinary meaning actual damages moreover authority majority cites claim actual damages fixed meaning undermines rather supports holding cited authority involves either statute congress expressly directed compensation measured strictly economic terms else statute copyright act economic loss natural probable consequence violation defined legal neither factor present notably absent privacy act provision much hinting actual damages limited economic loss hurt feelings nature copyright may place actual damages calculus copyright act ante quoting parenthetical mackie rieser majority provides basis concluding hurt feelings equally invalid act concerned safeguarding individual privacy thus context doubt relevant majority cited authority little help cause stated context statute indeed relevant statutory context substantive provisions whose breach may trigger suit provision reinforces ordinary meaning actual damages congress established substantive duties act expressly designed prevent agency conduct resulting intangible harms individual act requires agencies establish appropriate administrative technical physical safeguards ensure security breaches result substantial harm embarrassment inconvenience unfairness individual also requires agencies maintain records used making determination individual manner reasonably necessary assure fairness individual determination thus agency violates terms act fails maintain safeguards protecting embarrassment additional requirement pocketbook implicated agency intentional willful violation duties triggers liability actual damages event adverse impact adopting reading actual damages permits recovery pecuniary loss alone creates disconnect act substantive remedial provisions allows swath government violations go unremedied federal agency intentionally willfully forgo establishing safeguards protect embarrassment successful private action taken harm congress identified interpretation actual damages permits recovery nonpecuniary harms harmonizes act substantive remedial provisions robinson shell oil statutory interpretation must consider broader context statute whole majority draws different conclusion substantive provisions privacy act correctly infers act serves interests similar protected defamation privacy torts ante points observation doe chao act provision parallels remedial scheme torts defamation per quod permitted recovery general damages presumed damages plaintiff first establishes special damages monetary loss ante parallel majority concludes suggests possibility congress intended term damages act mean special damages ante majority reads much doe issue case question whether act provision authorized recovery guaranteed minimum award absent proof actual damages answered negative course replied petitioner argument something peculiar offering guaranteed damages plaintiffs demonstrate actual damages although cited act parallels defamation per quod actions noting nothing peculiar act remedial scheme doe take step deciding actual damages means economic loss alone indeed expressly reserved question majority moreover wrong conclude act parallels defamation per quod actions suggest congress intended actual damages mean special damages quite opposite fact congress probably known defamation per quod actions makes significant congress write special damages provision typically business substituting words think congress intended use words congress fact used yet precisely majority rewrites actual damages mean special damages sum statutory context particular act substantive provisions confirms ordinary meaning actual damages although act shares parallels defamation torts analogies warrant reading phrase odds statute plain uncodified provision act tied act drafting history also reinforces ordinary meaning actual damages majority notes prior reconciliation senate house bills contained provisions different critical respect senate bill allowed recovery actual general damages whereas house bill allowed recovery actual damages reconciliation process provision general damages dropped uncodified section act amended require newly established privacy protection study commission consider among jobs whether federal government liable general damages incurred individual result willful intentional violation provisions sections iii stat see also doe explained doe deletion damages bill fairly seen deliberate elimination possibility imputing harm awarding presumed damages see also congress explicitly rejected proposal make presumed damages available privacy act violations elimination presumed damages bill reasonably imply congress left behind actual damages comprised damages presumed damages proven competent evidence record see gertz robert welch distinguishing defamation context presumed damages damages actual injuries sustained competent evidence record include impairment reputation standing community personal humiliation mental anguish suffering carey piphus distinguishing presumed damages proven damages mental emotional distress rather view deletion general damages presumed damages leaving converse proven damages majority supposes deletion leaves subset proven damages economic nature special damages however majority insistence congress intended damages privacy act mean special damages proven pecuniary loss ante finds basis statutory text see supra response conclusion congress retained recovery proven damages eliminated presumed damages singularly unsatisfying majority declares conclusion flawed general damages includes compensation proven injuries well distinguishes general damages whether proved category compensatory damages available relevant suits type harm term encompasses majority takes emotional harm alone ante assertion defective two scores first plaintiff ability present proof injury defamation per se action recover proven injury alter definition general damages already explained doe means presumed damages see also supra second general damages limited type harm majority contrary assertion term permits recovery emotional types harm overlooks fact general damages partly based belief plaintiff suffer unprovable pecuniary losses dobbs emphasis added thus established common law defamation per se action plaintiff usually free prove whatever actual pecuniary loss jury may permitted view actual pecuniary loss proven tip iceberg assume still award damage accordingly ibid core majority opinion relies following syllogism common law employed two terms art defamation actions congress excluded recovery general damages must meant retain recovery special damages syllogism course ignores another category damages category congress used text privacy act actual damages however much congress may drawn parallels ante act tort defamation fact remains congress expressly choose use words special damages turn finally statute purpose cases statutory interpretation task interpret words th statut light purposes congress sought serve chapman houston welfare rights organization see also dolan postal service interpretation word phrase depends upon reading whole statutory text considering purpose context statute consulting precedents authorities inform analysis purposes privacy act explicit consistent interpreting actual damages according ordinary meaning historical context act important understanding remedial purposes congress concerned curbing illegal surveillance investigation individuals federal agencies exposed watergate scandal dept justice office privacy civil liberties overview privacy act particular congress recognized increasing use computers sophisticated information technology greatly magnified harm individual privacy occur collection maintenance use dissemination personal information stat identifying right privacy personal fundamental right congress found necessary proper enact privacy act order protect privacy individuals identified information systems maintained federal agencies ibid congress explained purpose act provide certain safeguards individual invasion personal privacy requiring federal agencies except otherwise provided law inter alia subject civil suit damages occur result willful intentional action violates individual rights act ibid emphasis added statement explicit reference suits brought provision speaks civil suit based willful intentional agency misconduct signals unmistakably congressional recognition provision integral realizing act purposes reading actual damages permit recovery injury established competent evidence record pecuniary best effectuates statute basic purpose although privacy invasions doubt result economic loss recognized time primary form injuries nonpecuniary includes mental distress personal humiliation see time hill privacy cases primary damage mental distress see also gertz ctual injury defamatory falsehood cases limited loss indeed customary types actual harm inflicted defamatory falsehood include impairment reputation standing community personal humiliation mental anguish suffering accord dobbs ed privacy dignitary interest great many cases interest invaded harm affront plaintiff dignity human damage resulting mental distress accords common sense interpreting provision must forget congress enacted privacy act protect privacy majority reading actual damages renders remedial provision impotent face concededly unlawful agency action whenever injury solely nonpecuniary result patently odds congress stated purpose majority however grapple ramifications opinion acknowledges suggestion holding leads absurd results allows individuals suffering relatively minor pecuniary losses recover others suffering severe mental anguish recover nothing concludes nothing absurd scheme limits government privacy act liability harm substantiated proof tangible economic loss ante perhaps certainly within congress prerogative enact statute majority envisions namely one seeks safeguard invasions privacy without remedying primary harm results invasions privacy problem majority one looks vain indication text statute us congress intended result nowhere privacy act congress much hint views hit pocketbook worthy remedy debilitating mental distress majority contrary assumption discounts gravity emotional harm caused invasion personal integrity privacy protects today matter debilitating substantial resulting mental anguish individual harmed federal agency intentional willful violation privacy act left without remedy unless able prove pecuniary harm result congress intended enacted act express purpose safeguarding individual privacy government invasion result remotely suggested anything text structure history act reasons respectfully dissent footnotes respondent eventually applied recertification pilot reviewing respondent medical records including information hiv diagnosis treatment faa reissued pilot certificate medical certificate brief respondent certain exceptions unlawful agency disclose record another agency without written consent person record pertains one exception nondisclosure requirement applies head agency makes written request law enforcement purposes agency maintains record see agencies case easily shared respondent medical records pursuant procedures prescribed privacy act district concluded failed narrow usage reflected contemporaneous decisions well see reist manwiller super explaining recovery intentional infliction emotional distress allowed despite total absence physical injury actual damages nalder crest idaho noting damages mental anguish due wrongful execution judgment allowable element punitive actual damages also reflected act statutes judicial decisions see ii defining actual damages audio home recording act royalty payments paid supp iv calculating actual damages purposes counterfeit labeling statute terms financial loss guzman western state bank devils lake stating compensatory damages civil rights suit awarded emotional mental distress even though actual damages proven dissent criticizes us noting dictionary definition contains element circularity dissent says definition ctual damages compensate actual injury plain enough post opinion sotomayor defining actual damages reference actual injury hardly helpful task determine congress meant actual dissent reference current version black law dictionary provides actual damages mean tangible damages highlights term ambiguity see black law dictionary ed actual damages mean tangible damages construed include intangible harm like mental emotional distress similarly unhelpful dissent citation dictionary defines actual existing fact reality damages compensation satisfaction imposed law wrong injury webster third new international dictionary emphasis added combining two lay definitions says nothing whether compensation mental emotional distress fact imposed law definitions merely beg question trying answer comes little surprise therefore actual damages taken different meanings different statutes examples amply illustrate libel per quod slander opposed libel slander per se apply communication defamatory face defamatory coupled extrinsic fact dobbs see also restatement comment special harm harm material generally pecuniary nature dobbs special damages defamation cases mean pecuniary damages least omitted special damages include mental emotional distress see restatement comment emotional distress caused person slandered knowledge defamed special harm although distress results serious illness dobbs even modern approach special damages defamation cases must economic nature enough plaintiff suffered harm reputation mental anguish dignitary harm unless also suffered loss something economic value see also explaining noneconomic harms called general damages prosser law torts ed noting damages may recovered injury plaintiff reputation wounded feelings humiliation resulting physical illness pain well estimated future damages kind footnotes omitted restatement comment stating actions defamation plaintiff may recover general damages impairment reputation loss reputation interests dissent disregards precedents product careless imprecision post assume congress act carelessly quick assume courts better explanation precedents courts careless term actual damages varied meaning depending context limited compensation pecuniary harm see also moriarty lippe admittedly alleged proven special damages plaintiff limited recovery general damages meyerle pioneer publishing per curiam generally speaking recognized two classes damages libel cases general damages special damages winans chapman actual damages include general special damages childers san jose mercury printing publishing cal explaining special damages branch actual damages may recovered actual pecuniary loss sustained remaining branch actual damages embraces recovery loss reputation shame mortification injury feelings etc see generally dobbs though dignitary torts often involve general damages sometimes produce actual pecuniary loss happens plaintiff usually entitled recover special damage prove harper james law torts liability defamation established defendant addition damages may assessed jury also liable special damage sustained dissent advances argument see post compare stating may award plaintiff actual punitive damages authorizing actual damages sustained consumer result failure damages less actual damages sustained consumer result failure whichever greater authorizing actual damages sustained consumer result failure authorizing actual damages sustained individual result refusal failure case shall person entitled recovery receive less sum despite rhetoric dissent dispute steps analysis example although dissent belittles sovereign immunity canon dissent call abandonment see post dissent point error understanding canon meaning see ibid dissent acknowledges statutes judicial opinions sometimes use term actual damages mean pecuniary harm see post determining meaning particular statute requires consideration context see ibid addition dissent concedes must light reasoning doe chao common law defamation relevance construing term actual damages privacy act see post dissent argument thus boils text purpose privacy act make clear beyond reasonable dispute term actual damages used act means compensatory damages proven harm damages pecuniary harm dissent reasons act seeks prevent pecuniary nonpecuniary harm congress must intended authorize recovery money damages federal government types harm inference plausible surely unavoidable act deters violations substantive provisions ways instance permitting recovery economic injury imposing criminal sanctions violations see possibly allowing injunctive relief administrative procedure act apa see doe supra noting absence equitable relief suits may explained availability relief apa footnotes black law dictionary also defined actual damages synonymous general damages black general damages specialized meaning presumed damages libel slander cases see infra generally mean damages fact result wrong directly proximately black majority declares definition circular defining damages reference injury hardly helpful task determine congress meant ante actual injury however far unhelpful reference already recognized defamation context actual injury limited loss gertz robert welch accords definitions terms see black defining actual eal substantial existing presently act valid objective existence opposed merely theoretical possible injury ny wrong damage done another see supp iv ed supp iv bears noting privacy act authorize injunctive relief suit maintained rather injunctive relief available act limited category suits suits amend record suits access record see thus individual like petitioner brings suit subparagraph willful violation act without remedy majority reading actual damages majority notes general damages common law refers damages presumed accrue violation legally protected right proof actual injury required see dobbs law remedies hereinafter dobbs doe special damages contrast meant monetary loss dobbs doe defamation actions falling within rubric defamation per se allowed successful plaintiffs recover general damages see dobbs doe stood contrast actions sounding defamation per quod permitted recovery plaintiff established special damages see dobbs doe even defamation per quod cases plaintiff recover nonpecuniary injuries upon establishing pecuniary loss see dobbs doe see also ante majority cites collection lower opinions used actual damages place special damages note congress alone using former term refer latter ante handful lower courts occasion imprecise terminology provides basis assume legislature equally careless text statute yet another flaw majority reasoning common law plaintiff successfully established special damages action defamation per quod proceed recover damages emotional mental distress see ante supra congress intended term damages act mean special damages ante individual successfully establishes pecuniary loss violation act presumably trivial cost bottle tylenol permitted recover emotional mental distress majority course accept result piecemeal embrace common law undermines assertion congress intended special damages place actual damages see majority cites conclusions privacy protection study commission support interpretation actual damages majority rightfully claim piece postenactment extratextual material due deference find unelaborated conclusions persuasive