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clause
original
ii
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constitutionalized
requirement
census
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every
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art
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chose
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precision
chief
justice
marshall
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intentions
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words
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patriots
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constitution
people
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words
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wheat
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elections
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concurring
judgment
quoting
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carolina
article
cl
modified
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amendment
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representatives
shall
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respective
numbers
counting
whole
number
persons
state
excluding
indians
taxed
census
clause
specifies
actual
enumeration
shall
made
within
three
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first
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term
ten
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art
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constitution
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process
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numbers
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actual
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dictionary
definitions
contemporaneous
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inform
understanding
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act
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potential
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universal
etymological
english
dictionary
ed
see
also
sheridan
complete
dictionary
english
language
ed
defining
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potential
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defined
numeration
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also
johnson
dictionary
english
language
rev
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enumerate
reckon
singly
count
distinctly
number
enumeration
act
numbering
counting
number
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also
webster
american
dictionary
english
language
number
tell
name
one
one
small
numbers
ascertaining
whole
number
units
collection
justice
scalia
explained
department
commerce
house
representatives
opinion
concurring
part
dictionary
definitions
contemporaneous
founding
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requires
actual
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estimation
number
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number
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definitions
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said
definitions
encompass
estimates
addition
time
founding
conjecture
estimation
often
contrasted
actual
enumeration
take
place
pursuant
census
clause
debate
first
census
act
james
madison
made
distinction
noting
census
provide
exact
number
every
division
compared
assertions
conjectures
founders
constitution
kurland
lerner
eds
hereinafter
founders
constitution
similarly
describing
document
containing
results
first
census
thomas
jefferson
noted
difference
returns
actual
added
red
ink
conjectur
writings
thomas
jefferson
lipscomb
ed
george
mason
one
point
observed
doubted
much
whether
conjectural
rule
precede
census
rendered
actual
census
founders
constitution
historians
commentators
founding
also
distinguished
actual
enumerations
conjectures
demonstrating
common
understanding
terms
instance
book
statistics
explains
number
inhabitants
country
prior
separation
great
britain
rests
principally
conjectural
estimates
pitkin
statistical
view
commerce
america
hereinafter
pitkin
see
also
brief
appellants
prior
revolution
british
board
trade
called
upon
governors
provide
account
populations
colonies
made
actual
enumerations
connecticut
others
made
estimates
founded
upon
number
taxable
polls
number
militia
pitkin
widely
cited
article
published
england
john
rickman
first
census
also
used
term
actual
enumeration
several
times
describe
count
must
always
real
number
noting
time
method
fraught
trouble
expence
attempts
accuracy
necessary
indeed
attainable
fluctuating
subject
john
rickman
article
desirability
taking
census
reprinted
glass
numbering
people
hereinafter
glass
see
also
brief
appellants
discussion
actual
enumeration
contrasted
subsequent
proposal
england
included
estimation
methods
resembling
sampling
imputation
since
rickman
deemed
appropriate
make
general
inferences
modern
registers
make
deficient
registers
glass
sure
census
clause
enables
congress
prescribe
manner
enumeration
taken
suggests
enumeration
implies
breadth
congress
methodological
authority
rather
constraints
see
ante
congress
may
dictate
manner
census
unbridled
discretion
purposes
apportionment
must
follow
constitution
command
actual
enumeration
madison
made
point
clear
debate
first
census
act
noted
difficulties
attendant
taking
census
way
required
constitution
obliged
perform
founders
constitution
also
places
undue
weight
penultimate
version
clause
iteration
given
committee
detail
committee
style
see
ante
whatever
may
said
earlier
version
rejected
similar
reliance
nixon
must
presume
committee
reorganization
rephrasing
accurately
captured
framers
meant
unadorned
language
carrying
majority
argument
logical
conclusion
constrain
us
say
second
last
draft
govern
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instance
committee
style
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word
result
odds
fact
convention
passed
committee
version
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language
enacted
text
best
indicator
intent
rather
rely
draft
focus
words
adopted
constitution
iii
original
understanding
discerned
examining
text
also
considering
meaning
intention
convention
framed
proposed
adoption
ratification
conventions
people
several
rhode
island
massachusetts
pet
history
census
taking
colonies
elsewhere
discussions
surrounding
ratification
census
clause
early
statutes
implementing
clause
provide
insight
meaning
census
taking
practice
exceptions
however
century
countries
conducted
partial
enumerations
supplemented
estimates
unenumerated
portion
population
wolfe
population
censuses
statistical
assn
hereinafter
wolfe
contentious
history
censuses
partial
otherwise
long
influenced
decisions
whether
undertake
see
biblical
account
lord
wrath
taking
census
taken
david
remained
argument
census
taking
even
late
eighteenth
century
history
rampant
manipulation
political
fiscal
gains
see
generally
alterman
glass
times
political
resistance
censuses
precluded
taking
suspicion
government
opposition
religious
grounds
example
prevented
general
census
france
century
wolfe
see
also
alterman
england
estimates
conjectures
changes
population
frequently
made
century
proposal
provide
general
enumeration
rejected
parliament
thought
census
might
reveal
england
weakness
enemies
might
followed
public
misfortune
epidemical
distemper
wolfe
internal
quotation
marks
omitted
england
part
responsible
first
colonial
censuses
british
board
trade
required
population
counts
properly
administer
colonies
halacy
census
years
counting
america
hereinafter
halacy
colonies
encounters
various
population
counting
methods
prior
least
population
counts
taken
colonies
see
alterman
according
one
historian
however
reason
suspect
censuses
often
intentionally
misleading
officials
one
hand
boastful
hand
timid
type
thought
serve
interest
exaggeration
understatement
dexter
estimates
population
american
colonies
proceedings
american
antiquarian
society
hereinafter
dexter
many
americans
resisted
efforts
according
inventory
colonies
attempts
population
estimates
connecticut
pursued
colonial
history
policy
hiding
strength
quietness
far
might
inconsistent
general
truthfulness
preferred
make
exhibit
actual
condition
census
new
york
met
much
opposition
superstitious
fear
breeding
sickness
partial
returns
obtained
citations
omitted
see
also
century
new
jersey
population
counts
century
apparently
comprised
guesses
royal
governors
make
satisfaction
superiors
dexter
benjamin
franklin
supposed
might
whites
pennsylvania
profess
speak
accuracy
bias
led
perhaps
unconsciously
cautious
understatement
georgia
apparently
singularly
misrepresented
overestimated
federal
convention
nearly
half
much
real
amount
population
rest
colonies
underestimated
considerably
total
convention
figures
falling
short
reality
half
million
framers
also
experience
various
statistical
techniques
example
thomas
jefferson
secretary
state
later
charged
running
first
official
national
census
great
interest
mathematics
numbers
see
halacy
cohen
jefferson
estimated
virginia
population
calculation
exhibited
awareness
statistical
estimation
techniques
used
calculate
population
virginia
unable
manage
full
census
continental
congress
eight
counties
failed
turn
census
data
cassedy
demography
early
america
beginnings
statistical
mind
hereinafter
cassedy
jefferson
extrapolate
incomplete
tax
returns
militia
muster
rolls
data
nonetheless
produced
estimate
ibid
first
listed
certain
known
facts
including
data
virginia
population
eight
counties
eight
counties
information
available
knew
men
militia
listed
five
assumptions
number
people
years
age
equal
number
years
based
final
estimate
alterman
another
elaborate
effort
population
calculation
undertaken
governor
massachusetts
estimated
colony
population
three
ways
first
made
estimate
return
general
rateable
males
eligible
vote
added
estimate
males
poor
pay
poll
tax
added
similar
numbers
females
made
another
estimate
multiplying
militia
returns
four
calculated
third
estimate
number
houses
since
many
believed
houses
averaged
five
occupants
others
preferred
five
half
used
numbers
giving
british
board
trade
several
numbers
however
concluded
actual
population
none
figures
population
fact
higher
cassedy
event
ince
returns
used
estimates
made
tax
purposes
understood
well
low
side
ibid
framers
quite
familiar
various
methods
also
impediments
successful
completion
continental
congress
already
used
population
estimates
make
decisions
taxation
efforts
met
resistance
continental
congress
ascertained
population
estimates
colonies
order
apportion
taxes
costs
revolutionary
war
pitkin
see
also
halacy
debts
incurred
revolutionary
war
hastened
ordering
standard
form
census
census
colonies
ordered
never
complied
rest
different
ways
new
hampshire
particular
complained
estimate
population
purposes
calculating
revolutionary
war
costs
high
pitkin
caused
actual
enumeration
made
appeared
number
inhabitants
lower
estimate
ibid
see
also
brief
appellants
new
hampshire
petitioned
continental
congress
change
amount
taxation
new
hampshire
effort
vain
congress
refused
alter
proportion
taxes
account
ibid
see
also
new
hampshire
provincial
state
papers
reprint
proportion
taxes
assigned
new
hampshire
congress
high
considerable
sum
numbers
taken
year
selectmen
several
towns
parishes
return
made
oath
proportion
appear
much
large
framers
knew
calculation
populations
often
skewed
political
financial
purposes
debate
apportionment
census
consequently
focused
part
creating
standard
limit
political
chicanery
framers
extensively
discuss
method
census
taking
many
expressed
desire
bind
shackle
legislature
neither
future
congresses
able
let
biases
influence
manner
apportionment
see
founders
constitution
madison
explained
one
respect
establishment
common
measure
representation
taxation
salutary
effect
accuracy
census
obtained
congress
necessarily
depend
considerable
degree
disposition
great
importance
feel
little
bias
possible
swell
reduce
amount
numbers
share
representation
alone
governed
rule
interest
exaggerating
inhabitants
rule
decide
share
taxation
alone
contrary
temptation
prevail
extending
rule
objects
opposite
interests
control
balance
produce
requisite
impartiality
federalist
pp
rossiter
ed
alexander
hamilton
likewise
noted
discussion
proportion
taxes
actual
census
enumeration
people
must
furnish
rule
circumstance
effectually
shuts
door
partiality
oppression
discussion
revealed
keen
awareness
absent
fixed
standard
numbers
bound
subject
political
manipulation
governor
morris
appears
one
strongest
opponents
fettering
legislature
much
least
recognized
mode
taking
census
unfixt
legislature
may
use
mode
defeat
object
perpetuate
inequality
founders
constitution
believed
however
ca
agree
rule
time
expect
find
one
times
come
edmund
randolph
hand
noted
dangers
suggested
governor
morris
real
advantage
taken
legislature
pressing
moments
additional
reason
tying
hands
manner
sacrifice
trust
momentary
considerations
debate
proposal
take
periodical
census
george
mason
noted
object
conjectural
ratio
prevail
outset
apportionment
prior
census
considered
revision
time
time
according
permanent
precise
standard
essential
fair
representation
nature
man
mason
observed
may
sure
power
hands
give
retain
contrary
know
always
rather
increase
initially
believed
congress
discretion
changed
minds
listening
arguments
randolph
mason
others
sherman
example
first
leaving
matter
wholly
discretion
legislature
convinced
observations
randolph
mason
periods
rule
revising
representation
fixt
constitution
ghorum
perceptively
noted
convention
comparatively
little
biased
local
views
much
perplexed
expected
legislature
hereafter
full
biass
views
able
settle
standard
ibid
hand
reid
continued
believe
legislature
much
shackled
ibid
also
thought
make
constitution
like
religious
creeds
embarrassing
bound
conform
likely
produce
dissatisfaction
scism
harmony
union
ibid
debate
continued
various
iterations
clause
considered
clear
principle
concern
constitution
establish
standard
resistant
manipulation
justice
story
later
observed
apportion
ing
representatives
among
according
relative
numbers
recommendation
great
simplicity
uniformity
operation
generally
acceptable
people
less
liable
fraud
evasion
devised
commentaries
constitution
rotunda
nowak
eds
long
relied
contemporaneous
constructions
constitution
interpreting
provisions
early
congressional
enactments
provid
contemporaneous
weighty
evidence
constitution
meaning
printz
citations
omitted
see
also
myers
repeatedly
laid
principle
contemporaneous
legislative
exposition
constitution
founders
government
framers
constitution
actively
participating
public
affairs
acquiesced
long
term
years
fixes
construction
given
provisions
collecting
cases
accordingly
turn
next
early
census
acts
provide
significant
additional
evidence
framers
meant
said
adopting
words
actual
enumeration
first
census
congress
directed
census
taken
actually
counting
people
house
representatives
congress
enacted
series
requirements
accomplish
counting
none
mention
use
sampling
statistical
technique
method
estimation
rather
first
census
act
described
among
things
many
census
takers
deputies
used
pay
consequences
falsifying
papers
address
attribute
persons
one
address
count
address
congress
ordered
first
census
begin
august
completed
within
nine
months
century
marshals
assistants
required
take
oath
affirmation
truly
cause
made
perfect
enumeration
description
persons
resident
within
district
act
mar
reprinted
wright
act
required
marshals
aggregate
numbers
provision
allowing
marshals
estimate
extrapolate
order
fill
missing
data
act
provided
assistants
particular
family
use
data
given
one
member
family
information
taken
persons
age
persons
required
give
assistant
true
account
method
counting
appears
permissible
failure
make
return
falsifying
return
triggered
heavy
monetary
penalties
threat
prosecution
ibid
congress
added
express
statement
said
enumeration
shall
made
actual
inquiry
every
head
every
family
within
district
otherwise
house
representatives
supra
citing
act
mar
stat
provision
requiring
census
takers
visit
personally
home
appeared
statutes
governing
next
censuses
see
surveying
census
acts
widespread
awareness
early
censuses
entirely
accurate
enumerators
confronted
many
problems
including
confusion
regarding
houses
belonged
districts
danger
roads
unwillingness
citizens
give
required
information
superstition
fear
census
connected
taxation
century
example
letter
george
washington
governor
morris
dated
first
census
complete
washington
noted
difference
enumeration
estimate
previously
given
acknowledged
official
census
accurate
one
letters
account
gave
number
inhabitants
probably
found
enumeration
large
estimate
founded
ideas
held
gentlemen
congress
population
several
natural
looking
thro
magnifying
glass
speak
greatest
extent
probability
numbers
reaching
returns
census
already
made
several
tolerably
estimate
formed
others
appears
shall
hardly
reach
four
millions
one
thing
certain
real
numbers
exceed
greatly
official
returns
writings
george
washington
fitzpatrick
ed
apparently
concerned
effect
results
first
census
foreign
opinion
jefferson
letter
sending
results
abroad
explained
enclose
copy
census
far
written
black
ink
founded
actual
returns
red
ink
conjectured
near
truth
making
small
allowance
omissions
know
great
may
safely
say
four
millions
writings
thomas
jefferson
perhaps
disappointed
results
census
noted
difference
returns
actual
added
red
ink
conjectur
suggestion
however
additional
conjectures
used
apportionment
see
woolsey
first
century
republic
alterman
despite
deficiencies
census
provided
factual
base
american
people
officials
scholars
needed
cassedy
thus
asserts
strong
constitutional
interest
accuracy
ante
stronger
suggestion
framers
placed
higher
value
preventing
political
manipulation
iv
text
history
review
original
understanding
census
clause
confirm
actual
enumeration
means
actual
count
without
estimation
sophisticated
statistical
techniques
may
available
today
time
founding
framers
great
deal
familiarity
alternative
methods
calculating
population
decided
constitutionalize
arduous
task
actual
enumeration
persuaded
much
like
earlier
methods
estimation
imputation
modern
statistical
technique
census
bureau
refers
estimation
constitutionally
permissible
recent
decades
decisions
regarding
whether
kind
imputation
statistical
methods
utilized
changed
administration
administration
departing
past
practice
imputation
first
used
census
bureau
used
form
every
decennial
census
since
plaintiffs
statement
undisputed
facts
app
response
plaintiffs
statement
material
facts
census
persons
imputed
apportionment
count
household
size
occupancy
imputation
census
bureau
also
used
form
estimation
combined
imputation
sampling
declaration
howard
hogan
hereinafter
hogan
use
imputation
shifted
one
seat
house
representatives
indiana
florida
making
year
census
least
second
time
use
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wisconsin
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