illinois
wardlow
argued
november
decided
january
respondent
wardlow
fled
upon
seeing
caravan
police
vehicles
converge
area
chicago
known
heavy
narcotics
trafficking
officers
nolan
harvey
caught
street
nolan
stopped
conducted
protective
search
weapons
experience
usually
weapons
vicinity
narcotics
transactions
discovering
handgun
officers
arrested
wardlow
illinois
trial
denied
motion
suppress
finding
gun
recovered
lawful
stop
frisk
convicted
unlawful
use
weapon
felon
reversing
state
appellate
found
nolan
reasonable
suspicion
make
stop
terry
ohio
state
affirmed
determining
sudden
flight
high
crime
area
create
reasonable
suspicion
justifying
terry
stop
flight
may
simply
exercise
right
go
one
way
see
florida
royer
held
officers
actions
violate
fourth
amendment
case
involving
brief
encounter
citizen
police
officer
public
street
governed
terry
officer
reasonable
articulable
suspicion
criminal
activity
afoot
may
conduct
brief
investigatory
stop
reasonable
suspicion
less
demanding
standard
probable
cause
must
least
minimal
level
objective
justification
stop
individual
presence
high
crime
area
standing
alone
enough
support
reasonable
particularized
suspicion
criminal
activity
location
characteristics
relevant
determining
whether
circumstances
sufficiently
suspicious
warrant
investigation
adams
williams
case
moreover
also
wardlow
unprovoked
flight
aroused
officers
suspicion
nervous
evasive
behavior
another
pertinent
factor
determining
reasonable
suspicion
headlong
flight
consummate
act
evasion
reviewing
propriety
officer
conduct
courts
available
empirical
studies
dealing
inferences
suspicious
behavior
reasonably
demand
scientific
certainty
none
exists
thus
reasonable
suspicion
determination
must
based
commonsense
judgments
inferences
human
behavior
see
cortez
officer
nolan
justified
suspecting
wardlow
involved
criminal
activity
therefore
investigating
holding
consistent
decision
florida
royer
supra
individual
approached
right
ignore
police
go
business
unprovoked
flight
exact
opposite
going
one
business
flight
necessarily
indicative
ongoing
criminal
activity
terry
recognized
officers
detain
individuals
resolve
ambiguities
conduct
thus
accepts
risk
officers
may
stop
innocent
people
learn
facts
rising
level
probable
cause
individual
must
allowed
go
way
case
officers
found
wardlow
possessed
handgun
arrested
violating
state
law
propriety
arrest
pp
reversed
remanded
rehnquist
delivered
opinion
scalia
kennedy
thomas
joined
stevens
filed
opinion
concurring
part
dissenting
part
souter
ginsburg
breyer
joined
illinois
petitioner
william
aka
sam
wardlow
writ
certiorari
illinois
january
chief
justice
rehnquist
delivered
opinion
respondent
wardlow
fled
upon
seeing
police
officers
patrolling
area
known
heavy
narcotics
trafficking
two
officers
caught
stopped
conducted
protective
search
weapons
discovering
handgun
officers
arrested
wardlow
hold
officers
stop
violate
fourth
amendment
constitution
september
officers
nolan
harvey
working
uniformed
officers
special
operations
section
chicago
police
department
officers
driving
last
car
four
car
caravan
converging
area
known
heavy
narcotics
trafficking
order
investigate
drug
transactions
officers
traveling
together
expected
find
crowd
people
area
including
lookouts
customers
caravan
passed
west
van
buren
officer
nolan
observed
respondent
wardlow
standing
next
building
holding
opaque
bag
respondent
looked
direction
officers
fled
nolan
harvey
turned
car
southbound
watched
ran
gangway
alley
eventually
cornered
street
nolan
exited
car
stopped
respondent
immediately
conducted
protective
search
weapons
experience
common
weapons
near
vicinity
narcotics
transactions
frisk
officer
nolan
squeezed
bag
respondent
carrying
felt
heavy
hard
object
similar
shape
gun
officer
opened
bag
discovered
handgun
five
live
rounds
ammunition
officers
arrested
wardlow
illinois
trial
denied
respondent
motion
suppress
finding
gun
recovered
lawful
stop
frisk
app
following
stipulated
bench
trial
wardlow
convicted
unlawful
use
weapon
felon
illinois
appellate
reversed
wardlow
conviction
concluding
gun
suppressed
officer
nolan
reasonable
suspicion
sufficient
justify
investigative
stop
pursuant
terry
ohio
app
illinois
agreed
rejecting
appellate
conclusion
wardlow
high
crime
area
illinois
determined
sudden
flight
area
create
reasonable
suspicion
justifying
terry
stop
relying
florida
royer
explained
although
police
right
approach
individuals
ask
questions
individual
obligation
respond
person
may
decline
answer
simply
go
way
refusal
respond
alone
provide
legitimate
basis
investigative
stop
determined
flight
may
simply
exercise
right
go
one
way
thus
constitute
reasonable
suspicion
justifying
terry
stop
illinois
also
rejected
argument
flight
combined
fact
occurred
high
crime
area
supported
finding
reasonable
suspicion
high
crime
area
factor
sufficient
standing
alone
justify
terry
stop
finding
independently
suspicious
circumstances
support
investigatory
detention
held
stop
subsequent
arrest
violated
fourth
amendment
granted
certiorari
reverse
case
involving
brief
encounter
citizen
police
officer
public
street
governed
analysis
first
applied
terry
terry
held
officer
may
consistent
fourth
amendment
conduct
brief
investigatory
stop
officer
reasonable
articulable
suspicion
criminal
activity
afoot
terry
supra
reasonable
suspicion
less
demanding
standard
probable
cause
requires
showing
considerably
less
preponderance
evidence
fourth
amendment
requires
least
minimal
level
objective
justification
making
stop
sokolow
officer
must
able
articulate
inchoate
unparticularized
suspicion
criminal
activity
terry
supra
nolan
harvey
among
eight
officers
four
car
caravan
converging
area
known
heavy
narcotics
trafficking
officers
anticipated
encountering
large
number
people
area
including
drug
customers
individuals
serving
lookouts
app
context
officer
nolan
decided
investigate
wardlow
observing
flee
individual
presence
area
expected
criminal
activity
standing
alone
enough
support
reasonable
particularized
suspicion
person
committing
crime
brown
texas
officers
required
ignore
relevant
characteristics
location
determining
whether
circumstances
sufficiently
suspicious
warrant
investigation
accordingly
previously
noted
fact
stop
occurred
high
crime
area
among
relevant
contextual
considerations
terry
analysis
adams
williams
case
moreover
merely
respondent
presence
area
heavy
narcotics
trafficking
aroused
officers
suspicion
unprovoked
flight
upon
noticing
police
cases
also
recognized
nervous
evasive
behavior
pertinent
factor
determining
reasonable
suspicion
florida
rodriguez
per
curiam
sokolow
supra
headlong
flight
wherever
occurs
consummate
act
evasion
necessarily
indicative
wrongdoing
certainly
suggestive
reviewing
propriety
officer
conduct
courts
available
empirical
studies
dealing
inferences
drawn
suspicious
behavior
reasonably
demand
scientific
certainty
judges
law
enforcement
officers
none
exists
thus
determination
reasonable
suspicion
must
based
commonsense
judgments
inferences
human
behavior
see
cortez
conclude
officer
nolan
justified
suspecting
wardlow
involved
criminal
activity
therefore
investigating
holding
entirely
consistent
decision
florida
royer
held
officer
without
reasonable
suspicion
probable
cause
approaches
individual
individual
right
ignore
police
go
business
id
refusal
cooperate
without
furnish
minimal
level
objective
justification
needed
detention
seizure
florida
bostick
unprovoked
flight
simply
mere
refusal
cooperate
flight
nature
going
one
business
fact
opposite
allowing
officers
confronted
flight
stop
fugitive
investigate
quite
consistent
individual
right
go
business
stay
put
remain
silent
face
police
questioning
respondent
amici
also
argue
innocent
reasons
flight
police
therefore
flight
necessarily
indicative
ongoing
criminal
activity
fact
undoubtedly
true
establish
violation
fourth
amendment
even
terry
conduct
justifying
stop
ambiguous
susceptible
innocent
explanation
officer
observed
two
individuals
pacing
back
forth
front
store
peering
window
periodically
conferring
terry
conduct
lawful
also
suggested
individuals
casing
store
planned
robbery
terry
recognized
officers
detain
individuals
resolve
ambiguity
allowing
detentions
terry
accepts
risk
officers
may
stop
innocent
people
indeed
fourth
amendment
accepts
risk
connection
drastic
police
action
persons
arrested
detained
probable
cause
believe
committed
crime
may
turn
innocent
terry
stop
far
minimal
intrusion
simply
allowing
officer
briefly
investigate
officer
learn
facts
rising
level
probable
cause
individual
must
allowed
go
way
case
officers
found
respondent
possession
handgun
arrested
violation
illinois
firearms
statute
question
propriety
arrest
us
judgment
illinois
reversed
cause
remanded
proceedings
inconsistent
opinion
ordered
illinois
petitioner
william
aka
sam
wardlow
writ
certiorari
illinois
january
justice
stevens
justice
souter
justice
ginsburg
justice
breyer
join
concurring
part
dissenting
part
state
illinois
asks
announce
rule
authorizing
temporary
detention
anyone
flees
mere
sight
police
officer
brief
petitioner
respondent
counters
asking
us
adopt
opposite
per
se
rule
fact
person
flees
upon
seeing
police
never
sufficient
justify
temporary
investigative
stop
kind
authorized
terry
ohio
brief
respondent
today
wisely
endorses
neither
per
se
rule
instead
rejects
proposition
flight
necessarily
indicative
ongoing
criminal
activity
ante
adhering
view
concept
reasonable
suspicion
readily
even
usefully
reduced
neat
set
legal
rules
must
determined
looking
totality
circumstances
whole
picture
sokolow
internal
quotation
marks
citation
omitted
abiding
framework
concludes
officer
nolan
justified
suspecting
wardlow
involved
criminal
activity
ante
although
agree
rejection
per
se
rules
proffered
parties
unlike
persuaded
case
brief
testimony
officer
seized
respondent
justify
conclusion
reasonable
suspicion
make
stop
discussing
specific
facts
case
shall
comment
parties
requests
per
se
rule
terry
ohio
first
recognized
police
officer
may
appropriate
circumstances
appropriate
manner
approach
person
purposes
investigating
possibly
criminal
behavior
even
though
probable
cause
make
arrest
authority
permitting
officer
stop
briefly
detain
person
investigative
purposes
sokolow
approved
well
reasonable
search
weapons
protection
police
officer
reason
believe
dealing
armed
dangerous
individual
regardless
whether
probable
cause
arrest
individual
crime
terry
cognizant
police
intrusion
never
received
constitutional
imprimatur
less
probable
cause
reflected
upon
magnitude
departure
endorsing
even
limited
search
said
constitutes
severe
though
brief
intrusion
upon
cherished
personal
security
must
annoying
frightening
perhaps
humiliating
experience
accordingly
recognized
narrowly
drawn
authority
limited
necessary
discovery
weapons
officer
conducting
investigatory
stop
explained
must
articulate
particularized
objective
basis
suspecting
particular
person
stopped
criminal
activity
cortez
determination
admonished
becomes
meaningful
assured
point
conduct
charged
enforcing
laws
subjected
detached
neutral
scrutiny
judge
must
evaluate
reasonableness
particular
search
seizure
light
particular
circumstances
terry
undertaking
neutral
scrutiny
based
circumstances
relies
certain
commonsense
conclusions
human
behavior
cortez
see
also
ante
relevant
inquiry
concerning
inferences
conclusions
draws
whether
particular
conduct
innocent
guilty
degree
suspicion
attaches
particular
types
noncriminal
acts
sokolow
question
case
concerns
degree
suspicion
attaches
person
flight
precisely
commonsense
conclusions
drawn
respecting
motives
behind
flight
pedestrian
may
break
run
variety
reasons
catch
friend
block
two
away
seek
shelter
impending
storm
arrive
bus
stop
bus
leaves
get
home
time
dinner
resume
jogging
pause
rest
avoid
contact
bore
bully
simply
answer
call
nature
might
coincide
arrival
officer
vicinity
pedestrian
might
also
run
sighted
one
police
officers
latter
instance
state
properly
points
fleeing
person
may
inter
alia
escapee
jail
wanted
warrant
possession
contraband
drugs
weapons
stolen
goods
etc
someone
committed
another
type
crime
brief
petitioner
short
unquestionably
circumstances
person
flight
suspicious
undeniably
instances
person
runs
entirely
innocent
reasons
given
diversity
frequency
possible
motivations
flight
profoundly
unwise
endorse
either
per
se
rule
inference
reasonably
draw
motivation
person
flight
rather
depend
number
different
circumstances
factors
time
day
number
people
area
character
neighborhood
whether
officer
uniform
way
runner
dressed
direction
speed
flight
whether
person
behavior
otherwise
unusual
might
relevant
specific
cases
number
variables
surely
sufficient
preclude
either
rule
always
justifies
never
justifies
investigative
stop
based
sole
fact
flight
began
police
officer
appeared
nearby
still
illinois
presses
per
se
rule
regarding
unprovoked
flight
upon
seeing
clearly
identifiable
police
officer
phrase
upon
seeing
used
illinois
apparently
assumes
flight
motivated
presence
police
officer
illinois
contends
unprovoked
flight
extreme
reaction
innocent
people
simply
flee
mere
sight
police
sure
illinois
concedes
innocent
person
even
one
distrustful
police
might
avoid
eye
contact
even
sneer
sight
officer
justify
terry
stop
sort
per
se
inference
illinois
insists
unprovoked
flight
altogether
different
behavior
aberrant
abnormal
per
se
inference
justified
even
assuming
know
person
runs
sees
police
inference
drawn
may
still
vary
case
case
flight
escape
police
detection
said
may
entirely
innocent
motivation
matter
common
knowledge
men
entirely
innocent
sometimes
fly
scene
crime
fear
apprehended
guilty
parties
unwillingness
appear
witnesses
true
accepted
axiom
criminal
law
wicked
flee
man
pursueth
righteous
bold
lion
innocent
men
sometimes
hesitate
confront
jury
necessarily
fear
jury
protect
wish
names
appear
connection
criminal
acts
humiliated
obliged
incur
popular
odium
arrest
trial
wish
put
annoyance
expense
defending
alberty
addition
concerns
reasonable
person
may
conclude
officer
sudden
appearance
indicates
nearby
criminal
activity
criminal
activity
also
substantial
element
danger
either
criminal
confrontation
criminal
police
considerations
lead
innocent
understandable
desire
quit
vicinity
speed
among
citizens
particularly
minorities
residing
high
crime
areas
also
possibility
fleeing
person
entirely
innocent
without
justification
believes
contact
police
dangerous
apart
criminal
activity
associated
officer
sudden
presence
person
unprovoked
flight
neither
aberrant
abnormal
moreover
concerns
fears
known
police
officers
validated
law
enforcement
investigations
practices
accordingly
evidence
supporting
reasonableness
beliefs
pervasive
dismissed
random
rare
persuasive
disparaged
inconclusive
insufficient
event
require
scientific
certainty
commonsense
conclusion
unprovoked
flight
sometimes
indicate
suspicious
motives
see
ante
neither
require
scientific
certainty
conclude
unprovoked
flight
occur
innocent
reasons
probative
force
inferences
drawn
flight
function
varied
circumstances
occurs
sometimes
inferences
entirely
consistent
presumption
innocence
sometimes
justify
investigation
sometimes
justify
immediate
stop
search
weapons
considerations
led
us
avoid
categorical
rules
concerning
person
flight
presumptions
drawn
therefrom
things
distinguish
enlightened
system
judicature
rude
barbarous
one
manner
deal
evidence
former
weighs
testimony
whilst
latter
conscious
perhaps
inability
careless
consequences
error
times
rejects
whole
portions
en
masse
others
converts
pieces
evidence
rules
law
investing
conclusive
effect
whose
probative
force
found
general
considerable
ancestors
observing
guilty
persons
usually
fled
justice
adopted
hasty
conclusion
guilty
old
law
man
fled
avoid
tried
felony
forfeited
goods
even
though
acquitted
modern
times
correct
views
prevailed
evasion
flight
justice
seems
nearly
reduced
true
place
administration
criminal
law
namely
circumstance
fact
always
importance
take
consideration
combined
others
may
afford
strong
evidence
guilt
like
piece
presumptive
evidence
equally
absurd
dangerous
invest
infallibility
hickory
internal
quotation
marks
omitted
unprovoked
flight
short
describes
category
activity
broad
varied
permit
per
se
reasonable
inference
regarding
motivation
activity
innocent
explanations
surely
establish
fourth
amendment
always
violated
whenever
someone
stopped
solely
basis
unprovoked
flight
neither
suspicious
motivations
establish
fourth
amendment
never
violated
terry
stop
predicated
fact
alone
reasons
surely
correct
refusing
embrace
either
per
se
rule
advocated
parties
totality
circumstances
always
must
dictate
result
ii
guided
test
concludes
officer
nolan
reasonable
suspicion
stop
respondent
ante
respect
view
differs
entire
justification
stop
articulated
brief
testimony
officer
nolan
facts
perfectly
clear
others
factual
insufficiency
leads
conclude
judgment
mistaken
respondent
wardlow
arrested
minutes
noon
september
nolan
part
caravan
patrol
team
officers
headed
one
areas
district
chicago
high
narcotics
traffic
app
reason
four
cars
caravan
ormally
different
areas
enormous
amount
people
sometimes
lookouts
customers
ibid
officer
nolan
testified
uniform
day
recall
whether
driving
marked
unmarked
car
officer
nolan
partner
last
four
patrol
cars
caravaning
eastbound
van
buren
nolan
first
observed
respondent
front
west
van
buren
wardlow
looked
direction
began
fleeing
nolan
began
driving
southbound
street
observing
respondent
running
gangway
alley
southbound
observed
wardlow
carrying
white
opaque
bag
arm
car
turned
south
intercepted
respondent
ran
right
towards
us
officer
nolan
stopped
conducted
protective
search
revealed
bag
respondent
arm
contained
loaded
handgun
terse
testimony
noticeable
fails
reveal
though
asked
whether
marked
unmarked
car
officer
nolan
recall
answer
asked
whether
three
cars
caravan
marked
whether
seven
officers
uniform
though
explained
size
caravan
ormally
different
areas
enormous
amount
people
sometimes
lookouts
customers
officer
nolan
testify
whether
anyone
besides
wardlow
nearby
west
van
buren
clear
address
intended
destination
caravan
appellate
illinois
interpreted
record
appears
officers
simply
driving
way
unidentified
location
noticed
defendant
standing
west
van
buren
app
officer
nolan
testimony
also
reveal
fast
officers
driving
indicate
whether
saw
respondent
notice
patrol
cars
say
whether
caravan
part
already
passed
wardlow
began
run
indeed
appellate
thought
record
even
vague
support
inference
defendant
flight
related
expectation
police
focus
presumably
respondent
react
first
three
cars
even
sure
recognized
occupants
fourth
police
officers
adverse
inference
based
entirely
officer
statement
looked
direction
began
fleeing
app
factors
sufficiently
support
finding
reasonable
suspicion
though
respondent
carrying
white
opaque
bag
arm
nothing
suspicious
certainly
time
day
shortly
noon
support
illinois
argument
officers
responding
call
report
suspicious
activity
area
officer
nolan
testify
expected
find
enormous
amount
people
including
drug
customers
lookouts
app
points
context
officer
nolan
decided
investigate
wardlow
observing
flee
ante
observation
view
lends
insufficient
weight
reasonable
suspicion
analysis
indeed
light
absence
testimony
anyone
else
nearby
respondent
began
run
observation
points
opposite
direction
state
along
majority
relies
well
assumption
flight
occurred
high
crime
area
even
assumption
accurate
insufficient
even
high
crime
neighborhood
unprovoked
flight
invariably
lead
reasonable
suspicion
contrary
many
factors
providing
innocent
motivations
unprovoked
flight
concentrated
high
crime
areas
character
neighborhood
arguably
makes
inference
guilt
less
appropriate
rather
like
unprovoked
flight
presence
high
crime
neighborhood
fact
generic
susceptible
innocent
explanation
satisfy
reasonable
suspicion
inquiry
see
brown
texas
see
also
supra
state
burden
articulate
facts
sufficient
support
reasonable
suspicion
brown
texas
see
also
florida
royer
plurality
opinion
judgment
illinois
failed
discharge
burden
persuaded
mere
fact
someone
standing
sidewalk
looked
direction
passing
car
starting
run
sufficient
justify
forcible
stop
frisk
therefore
respectfully
dissent
judgment
reverse
footnotes
state
courts
differed
whether
unprovoked
flight
sufficient
grounds
constitute
reasonable
suspicion
see
state
anderson
flight
alone
sufficient
platt
state
ind
harris
state
app
flight
high
crime
area
sufficient
state
hicks
neb
flight
enough
state
tucker
people
shabaz
people
wilson
granted
certiorari
solely
question
whether
initial
stop
supported
reasonable
suspicion
therefore
express
opinion
lawfulness
frisk
independently
stop
footnotes
added
terry
frisk
serious
intrusion
upon
sanctity
person
may
inflict
great
indignity
arouse
strong
resentment
undertaken
lightly
resentment
engendered
intrusion
aggravated
mitigated
officer
entire
justification
stop
belief
individual
simply
trying
avoid
contact
police
move
one
place
another
right
rapidly
see
chicago
morales
plurality
opinion
expressly
identified
right
remove
one
place
another
according
inclination
attribute
personal
liberty
protected
constitution
citation
omitted
florida
bostick
florida
royer
plurality
opinion
terry
harlan
concurring
see
also
ante
fleeing
person
exercises
right
remain
silent
stopped
third
state
four
hypothetical
categories
stop
likely
lead
probable
cause
make
arrest
even
third
category
flight
necessarily
indicate
officer
dealing
armed
dangerous
individual
terry
ohio
compare
proverbs
wicked
flee
man
pursueth
righteous
bold
lion
proverbs
shrewd
man
sees
trouble
coming
lies
low
simple
walk
pay
penalty
rejected
reliance
former
proverb
past
analysis
real
world
fails
account
experiences
many
citizens
country
particularly
minorities
see
california
hodari
stevens
dissenting
pithy
expression
fails
capture
total
reality
world
however
mean
inaccurate
instances
course
terry
recognized
sometimes
behavior
giving
rise
reasonable
suspicion
entirely
innocent
accepted
risk
officers
may
stop
innocent
people
correctly
observes
undoubtedly
true
innocent
explanations
flight
exist
establish
violation
fourth
amendment
ante
equally
true
however
innocent
explanations
make
single
act
flight
sufficiently
ambiguous
preclude
adoption
per
se
rule
terry
furthermore
reasonable
suspicion
supported
concatenation
acts
innocent
viewed
isolation
considered
collectively
amounted
extremely
suspicious
behavior
see
flight
alone
however
like
series
acts
perhaps
innocent
taken
together
warran
investigation
id
flight
similar
evidence
aggregate
provides
fact
fact
clue
clue
afford
ing
basis
deductions
inferences
supporting
reasonable
suspicion
cortez
nowhere
illinois
briefs
specify
means
unprovoked
oral
argument
illinois
explained
officers
precipitate
flight
threats
violence
flight
provoked
police
officers
patrol
car
lights
flashing
siren
sounding
descend
upon
individual
sole
purpose
seeing
run
ensuing
flight
unprovoked
tr
oral
arg
statistical
studies
bystander
victimization
rare
one
study
attributes
incomplete
recordkeeping
lack
officially
compiled
data
see
sherman
steele
laufersweiler
hooper
julian
stray
bullets
mushrooms
random
shootings
bystanders
four
cities
journal
quantitative
criminology
nonetheless
study
culling
data
newspaper
reports
four
large
cities
period
found
substantial
increases
reported
bystander
killings
woundings
four
cities
id
example
study
identified
people
killed
wounded
bystander
shootings
four
survey
cities
id
significantly
purposes
present
case
study
found
incidents
rank
top
public
outrage
id
saliency
phenomenon
turn
violate
routine
assumptions
affairs
ith
enough
frequency
shapes
conduct
daily
life
ibid
see
johnson
americans
views
crime
law
enforcement
survey
findings
national
institute
justice
journal
reporting
study
joint
center
political
economic
studies
april
found
consider
police
brutality
harassment
serious
problem
community
president
law
enforcement
administration
justice
task
force
report
police
documenting
belief
held
many
minorities
field
interrogations
conducted
indiscriminately
abusive
manner
labeling
phenomenon
principal
problem
causing
friction
minorities
police
cited
terry
see
also
casimir
minority
men
frisk
targets
daily
news
mar
informal
survey
young
black
hispanic
men
living
new
york
city
reported
stopped
frisked
police
least
none
stops
resulted
arrests
brief
naacp
legal
defense
educational
fund
amicus
curiae
reporting
figures
disproportionate
street
stops
minority
residents
pittsburgh
philadelphia
pennsylvania
petersburg
florida
dept
justice
bureau
justice
statistics
smith
criminal
victimization
perceptions
community
safety
cities
june
residents
cities
twice
likely
dissatisfied
police
practices
white
residents
community
see
kotlowitz
hidden
casualties
drug
war
emphasis
law
enforcement
takes
toll
police
wall
street
journal
black
leaders
complained
innocent
people
picked
drug
sweeps
scared
task
force
ran
even
selling
drugs
many
stops
never
lead
arrest
exacerbates
perceptions
discrimination
felt
racial
minorities
people
living
high
crime
areas
see
goldberg
color
suspicion
times
magazine
june
reporting
period
new
york
city
police
department
street
crimes
unit
made
stops
resulted
arrest
casimir
supra
reporting
new
york
city
street
crimes
unit
conducted
resulted
arrest
even
data
race
neutral
still
indicate
society
whole
paying
significant
cost
infringement
liberty
virtually
random
stops
see
also
supra
chief
washington
metropolitan
police
department
example
confirmed
sizeable
percentages
americans
today
especially
americans
color
still
view
policing
discriminatory
policy
definition
certainly
application
verniero
attorney
general
new
jersey
interim
report
state
police
review
team
regarding
allegations
racial
profiling
apr
hereinafter
interim
report
recent
survey
los
angeles
police
department
officers
found
felt
racial
bias
prejudice
part
officers
toward
minority
citizens
currently
exists
contributes
negative
interaction
police
community
report
independent
los
angeles
police
department
see
also
civil
rights
racial
ethnic
tensions
american
communities
poverty
inequality
discrimination
los
angeles
report
june
new
jersey
attorney
general
recent
investigation
allegations
racial
profiling
new
jersey
turnpike
concluded
minority
motorists
treated
differently
new
jersey
state
troopers
motorists
course
traffic
stops
new
jersey
turnpike
problem
disparate
treatment
real
imagined
declared
attorney
general
surprisingly
report
concluded
disparate
treatment
engender
feelings
fear
resentment
hostility
mistrust
minority
citizens
see
interim
report
recently
department
justice
citing
evidence
announced
appoint
outside
monitor
oversee
actions
new
jersey
state
police
ensure
enacts
policy
changes
advocated
interim
report
keeps
records
racial
statistics
traffic
stops
see
kocieniewski
monitor
new
jersey
police
race
profiling
times
likewise
massachusetts
attorney
general
investigated
similar
allegations
egregious
police
conduct
toward
minorities
report
stated
conclude
boston
police
officers
engaged
improper
unconstitutional
conduct
period
respect
stops
searches
minority
individuals
although
say
precision
widespread
illegal
conduct
believe
sufficiently
common
justify
changes
certain
department
practices
perhaps
disturbing
evidence
scope
number
terry
searches
went
far
beyond
anything
authorized
case
indeed
beyond
anything
believe
acceptable
federal
state
constitutions
even
probable
cause
existed
conduct
full
search
incident
arrest
forcing
young
men
lower
trousers
otherwise
searching
inside
underwear
public
streets
public
hallways
demeaning
invasive
fundamental
precepts
privacy
condemned
strongest
terms
fact
young
men
independent
witnesses
complained
strip
searches
deeply
alarming
members
community
shannon
attorney
general
massachusetts
report
attorney
general
civil
rights
division
boston
police
department
practices
taking
account
innocent
motivations
unprovoked
flight
leads
reject
illinois
requested
per
se
rule
favor
adhering
test
conclusion
illinois
suggests
establish
separate
terry
analysis
based
individual
characteristics
person
seized
reply
brief
petitioner
rejection
per
se
rule
course
applies
members
races
true
illinois
points
terry
approved
stop
frisk
procedure
notwithstanding
wholesale
harassment
certain
elements
police
community
minority
groups
particularly
negroes
frequently
complain
passage
terry
simply
held
concerns
preclude
use
stop
frisk
procedure
altogether
see
nowhere
terry
suggest
concerns
inform
assessment
whether
reasonable
suspicion
sufficient
justify
particular
stop
existed
general
matter
local
courts
often
keener
informed
sense
local
police
practices
events
may
heighten
concerns
particular
times
locations
thus
reviewing
may
accord
substantial
deference
local
determination
fear
police
especially
acute
specific
location
particular
time
illinois
reliance
common
law
conclusive
answer
issue
hand
mistaken
sources
gleans
guidance
focus
either
flight
following
accusation
criminal
activity
see
blackstone
commentaries
flight
accusation
treason
felony
even
petit
larceny
offence
carrying
strong
presumption
guilt
emphasis
added
part
less
dogmatic
illinois
contends
compare
brief
petitioner
person
flight
considered
conclusive
proof
guilt
burrill
circumstantial
evidence
impressed
old
common
law
considerations
kind
laid
rule
passed
maxim
flight
justice
equivalent
confession
guilt
maxim
undoubtedly
expressed
general
sweeping
terms
suppression
hearing
state
failed
present
testimony
time
respondent
arrest
illinois
however
took
notice
time
recorded
officer
nolan
arrest
report
see
population
district
people
see
brief
national
association
police
organizations
et
al
amici
curiae
app
ii
course
different
case
officers
credible
information
respecting
specific
street
address
reasonably
led
believe
criminal
activity
afoot
narrowly
defined
area
officer
nolan
also
testified
respondent
looking
us
app
emphasis
added
though
minor
clarification
hardly
seems
sufficient
support
adverse
inference