chadwick
argued
april
decided
june
respondents
arrived
train
boston
san
diego
arrested
waiting
automobile
federal
narcotics
agents
alerted
respondents
possible
drug
traffickers
footlocker
respondents
transported
train
agents
probable
cause
believe
contained
narcotics
loaded
trunk
automobile
respondents
together
automobile
footlocker
admittedly
agents
exclusive
control
taken
federal
building
boston
hour
half
arrests
agents
opened
footlocker
without
respondents
consent
search
warrant
found
large
amounts
marihuana
respondents
subsequently
indicted
possession
marihuana
intent
distribute
district
granted
pretrial
motion
suppress
marihuana
obtained
footlocker
holding
warrantless
searches
per
se
unreasonable
fourth
amendment
unless
fall
within
established
exception
warrant
requirement
footlocker
search
justified
either
automobile
exception
search
incident
lawful
arrest
appeals
affirmed
held
respondents
entitled
protection
warrant
clause
fourth
amendment
evaluation
neutral
magistrate
privacy
interests
contents
footlocker
invaded
pp
fundamental
purpose
fourth
amendment
safeguard
individuals
unreasonable
government
invasions
legitimate
privacy
interests
simply
interests
inside
four
walls
home
pp
placing
personal
effects
inside
footlocker
respondents
manifested
expectation
contents
remain
free
public
examination
less
one
locks
doors
home
intruders
one
safeguards
personal
possessions
manner
due
protection
fourth
amendment
warrant
clause
since
exigency
calling
immediate
search
unreasonable
government
conduct
search
ithout
safeguards
judicial
warrant
provides
footlocker
search
justified
automobile
exception
since
person
expectations
privacy
personal
luggage
substantially
greater
automobile
connection
footlocker
mobility
justify
dispensing
search
warrant
federal
agents
seized
footlocker
railroad
station
safely
transferred
federal
building
exclusive
control
slightest
danger
contents
removed
valid
search
warrant
obtained
pp
footlocker
search
justified
search
incident
lawful
arrest
search
remote
time
place
arrest
exigency
existed
search
conducted
hour
federal
agents
gained
exclusive
control
footlocker
long
respondents
securely
custody
pp
burger
delivered
opinion
brennan
stewart
white
marshall
powell
stevens
joined
brennan
filed
concurring
opinion
post
blackmun
filed
dissenting
opinion
rehnquist
joined
post
deputy
solicitor
general
randolph
argued
cause
brief
acting
solicitor
general
friedman
assistant
attorney
general
thornburgh
kenneth
geller
sidney
glazer
martin
weinberg
argued
cause
respondents
brief
philip
nyman
robert
steadman
jeanne
baker
joel
gora
jack
novik
john
reinstein
filed
brief
american
civil
liberties
union
et
al
amici
curiae
urging
affirmance
frank
carrington
glen
murphy
cecil
hicks
james
costello
filed
brief
americans
effective
law
enforcement
et
al
amici
curiae
chief
justice
burger
delivered
opinion
granted
certiorari
case
decide
whether
search
warrant
required
federal
agents
may
open
locked
footlocker
lawfully
seized
time
arrest
owners
probable
cause
believe
footlocker
contains
contraband
may
amtrak
railroad
officials
san
diego
observed
respondents
gregory
machado
bridget
leary
load
brown
footlocker
onto
train
bound
boston
suspicions
aroused
noticed
trunk
unusually
heavy
size
leaking
talcum
powder
substance
often
used
mask
odor
marihuana
hashish
machado
matched
profile
used
spot
drug
traffickers
railroad
officials
reported
circumstances
federal
agents
san
diego
turn
relayed
information
together
detailed
descriptions
machado
footlocker
counterparts
boston
train
arrived
boston
two
days
later
federal
narcotics
agents
hand
though
officers
obtained
arrest
search
warrant
police
dog
trained
detect
marihuana
agents
identified
machado
leary
kept
surveillance
claimed
suitcases
footlocker
transported
baggage
cart
train
departure
area
machado
leary
lifted
footlocker
baggage
cart
placed
floor
sat
agents
released
dog
near
footlocker
without
alerting
respondents
dog
signaled
presence
controlled
substance
inside
respondent
chadwick
joined
machado
leary
engaged
attendant
move
footlocker
outside
chadwick
waiting
automobile
machado
chadwick
attendant
together
lifted
footlocker
trunk
car
leary
waited
front
seat
point
trunk
car
still
open
car
engine
started
officers
arrested
three
search
disclosed
weapons
keys
footlocker
apparently
taken
machado
respondents
taken
federal
building
boston
agents
followed
chadwick
car
footlocker
government
concedes
moment
respondents
arrests
footlocker
remained
exclusive
control
law
enforcement
officers
times
footlocker
luggage
placed
federal
building
one
agents
later
testified
risk
whatever
contained
footlocker
trunk
removed
defendants
associates
app
agents
reason
believe
footlocker
contained
explosives
inherently
dangerous
items
contained
evidence
lose
value
unless
footlocker
opened
facilities
readily
available
footlocker
stored
securely
contended
exigency
calling
immediate
search
federal
building
hour
half
arrests
agents
opened
footlocker
luggage
obtain
respondents
consent
secure
search
warrant
footlocker
locked
padlock
regular
trunk
lock
unclear
whether
opened
keys
taken
respondent
machado
means
large
amounts
marihuana
found
footlocker
respondents
indicted
possession
marihuana
intent
distribute
violation
conspiracy
violation
trial
moved
suppress
marihuana
obtained
footlocker
district
government
sought
justify
failure
secure
search
warrant
automobile
exception
chambers
maroney
search
incident
arrests
holding
arrantless
searches
per
se
unreasonable
subject
carefully
delineated
limited
exceptions
district
rejected
justifications
supp
mass
saw
relationship
footlocker
chadwick
automobile
merely
coincidental
held
footlocker
part
area
within
respondents
might
gain
possession
weapon
destructible
evidence
chimel
california
divided
appeals
first
circuit
affirmed
suppression
seized
marihuana
held
footlocker
properly
taken
federal
custody
respondents
lawful
arrest
also
agreed
agents
probable
cause
believe
footlocker
contained
controlled
substance
opened
probable
cause
alone
held
enough
sustain
warrantless
search
premise
warrantless
searches
per
se
unreasonable
unless
fall
within
established
exception
warrant
requirement
appeals
agreed
district
footlocker
search
justified
either
automobile
exception
search
incident
lawful
arrest
appeals
responded
argument
suggested
government
first
time
appeal
movable
personalty
lawfully
seized
public
place
subject
search
without
warrant
exists
probable
cause
believe
contains
evidence
crime
conceding
personalty
shares
characteristics
mobility
support
warrantless
automobile
searches
nevertheless
concluded
rule
permitting
search
personalty
probable
cause
alone
yet
received
sufficient
recognition
outside
automobile
area
generally
us
recognize
valid
exception
fourth
amendment
warrant
requirement
granted
certiorari
affirm
government
contends
fourth
amendment
warrant
clause
protects
interests
traditionally
identified
home
recalling
colonial
writs
assistance
often
executed
searches
private
dwellings
government
claims
warrant
clause
adopted
primarily
exclusively
response
unjustified
intrusions
private
homes
authority
general
warrants
government
argues
evidence
framers
fourth
amendment
intended
disturb
established
practice
permitting
warrantless
searches
outside
home
modify
initial
clause
fourth
amendment
making
warrantless
searches
supported
probable
cause
per
se
unreasonable
drawing
reading
history
government
argues
homes
offices
private
communications
implicate
interests
lie
core
fourth
amendment
accordingly
contexts
determination
whether
search
seizure
reasonable
turn
whether
warrant
obtained
situations
government
contends
less
significant
privacy
values
stake
reasonableness
government
intrusion
depend
solely
whether
probable
cause
believe
evidence
criminal
conduct
present
personal
effects
lawfully
seized
outside
home
probable
cause
government
thus
regard
searches
without
warrant
unreasonable
agree
warrant
clause
protects
dwellings
specifically
designated
locales
noted
fourth
amendment
protects
people
places
katz
particularly
protects
people
unreasonable
government
intrusions
legitimate
expectations
privacy
case
warrant
clause
makes
significant
contribution
protection
question
whether
warrantless
search
circumstances
unreasonable
doubted
fourth
amendment
commands
grew
large
measure
colonists
experience
writs
assistance
memories
general
warrants
formerly
use
england
writs
issued
executive
rather
judicial
authority
granted
sweeping
power
customs
officials
agents
king
search
large
smuggled
goods
though
authority
search
granted
writs
limited
home
searches
conducted
pursuant
often
carried
private
residences
see
generally
stanford
texas
marcus
search
warrant
frank
maryland
although
searches
seizures
deeply
concerned
colonists
foremost
minds
framers
involving
invasions
home
mistake
conclude
government
contends
warrant
clause
therefore
intended
guard
intrusions
home
first
warrant
clause
terms
distinguish
searches
conducted
private
homes
searches
also
strong
historical
connection
warrant
clause
initial
clause
fourth
amendment
draws
distinctions
among
persons
houses
papers
effects
safeguarding
unreasonable
searches
seizures
see
rabinowitz
frankfurter
dissenting
moreover
little
evidence
framers
intended
warrant
clause
operate
outside
home
evidence
intended
exclude
protection
clause
searches
occurring
outside
home
absence
contemporary
outcry
warrantless
searches
public
places
aside
searches
incident
arrest
warrantless
searches
large
issue
colonial
america
thus
silence
historical
record
tells
us
little
framers
attitude
toward
application
warrant
clause
search
respondents
footlocker
know
framers
men
focused
wrongs
day
intended
fourth
amendment
safeguard
fundamental
values
far
outlast
specific
abuses
gave
birth
moreover
area
write
clean
slate
fundamental
inquiry
considering
fourth
amendment
issues
whether
search
seizure
reasonable
circumstances
cooper
california
judicial
warrant
significant
role
play
provides
detached
scrutiny
neutral
magistrate
reliable
safeguard
improper
searches
hurried
judgment
law
enforcement
officer
engaged
often
competitive
enterprise
ferreting
crime
johnson
lawful
search
begun
also
far
likely
exceed
proper
bounds
done
pursuant
judicial
authorization
particularly
describing
place
searched
persons
things
seized
warrant
assures
individual
whose
property
searched
seized
lawful
authority
executing
officer
need
search
limits
power
search
camara
municipal
fourth
amendment
protects
people
places
protections
judicial
warrant
offers
erroneous
governmental
intrusions
effective
whether
applied
home
accordingly
held
warrantless
searches
unreasonable
therefore
unconstitutional
variety
settings
century
ago
justice
field
speaking
included
within
reach
warrant
clause
printed
matter
traveling
mails
within
letters
sealed
packages
kind
mail
fully
guarded
examination
inspection
except
outward
form
weight
retained
parties
forwarding
domiciles
constitutional
guaranty
right
people
secure
papers
unreasonable
searches
seizures
extends
papers
thus
closed
inspection
wherever
may
whilst
mail
opened
examined
like
warrant
issued
upon
similar
oath
affirmation
particularly
describing
thing
seized
required
papers
subjected
search
one
household
ex
parte
jackson
case
important
fourth
amendment
privacy
interests
stake
placing
personal
effects
inside
footlocker
respondents
manifested
expectation
contents
remain
free
public
examination
less
one
locks
doors
home
intruders
one
safeguards
personal
possessions
manner
due
protection
fourth
amendment
warrant
clause
exigency
unreasonable
government
conduct
search
without
safeguards
judicial
warrant
provides
government
contend
footlocker
brief
contact
chadwick
car
makes
automobile
search
argued
rationale
automobile
search
cases
demonstrates
reasonableness
permitting
warrantless
searches
luggage
government
views
luggage
analogous
motor
vehicles
fourth
amendment
purposes
true
like
footlocker
issue
automobiles
effects
fourth
amendment
searches
seizures
automobiles
therefore
subject
constitutional
standard
reasonableness
recognized
significant
differences
motor
vehicles
property
permit
warrantless
searches
automobiles
circumstances
warrantless
searches
reasonable
contexts
carroll
preston
supra
chambers
maroney
see
also
south
dakota
opperman
treatment
automobiles
based
part
inherent
mobility
often
makes
obtaining
judicial
warrant
impracticable
nevertheless
also
sustained
warrantless
searches
vehicles
cases
possibilities
vehicle
removed
evidence
destroyed
remote
nonexistent
cady
dombrowski
accord
south
dakota
opperman
supra
see
texas
white
chambers
maroney
supra
cooper
california
answer
lies
diminished
expectation
privacy
surrounds
automobile
one
lesser
expectation
privacy
motor
vehicle
function
transportation
seldom
serves
one
residence
repository
personal
effects
travels
public
thoroughfares
occupants
contents
plain
view
cardwell
lewis
plurality
opinion
factors
diminish
privacy
aspects
automobile
apply
respondents
footlocker
luggage
contents
open
public
view
except
condition
border
entry
common
carrier
travel
luggage
subject
regular
inspections
official
scrutiny
continuing
basis
unlike
automobile
whose
primary
function
transportation
luggage
intended
repository
personal
effects
sum
person
expectations
privacy
personal
luggage
substantially
greater
automobile
footlocker
mobility
justify
dispensing
added
protections
warrant
clause
federal
agents
seized
railroad
station
safely
transferred
boston
federal
building
exclusive
control
slightest
danger
footlocker
contents
removed
valid
search
warrant
obtained
initial
seizure
detention
footlocker
validity
respondents
contest
sufficient
guard
risk
evidence
might
lost
footlocker
safely
immobilized
unreasonable
undertake
additional
greater
intrusion
search
without
warrant
finally
government
urges
constitution
permits
warrantless
search
property
possession
person
arrested
public
long
probable
cause
believe
property
contains
contraband
evidence
crime
although
recognizing
footlocker
within
respondents
immediate
control
government
insists
search
reasonable
footlocker
seized
contemporaneously
respondents
arrests
searched
soon
thereafter
practicable
reasons
justifying
search
custodial
arrest
quite
different
custodial
arrest
made
always
danger
person
arrested
may
seek
use
weapon
evidence
may
concealed
destroyed
safeguard
others
prevent
loss
evidence
held
reasonable
arresting
officer
conduct
prompt
warrantless
search
arrestee
person
area
within
immediate
control
construing
phrase
mean
area
within
might
gain
possession
weapon
destructible
evidence
chimel
california
see
also
terry
ohio
searches
may
conducted
without
warrant
may
also
made
whether
probable
cause
believe
person
arrested
may
weapon
destroy
evidence
potential
dangers
lurking
custodial
arrests
make
warrantless
searches
items
within
immediate
control
area
reasonable
without
requiring
arresting
officer
calculate
probability
weapons
destructible
evidence
may
involved
robinson
terry
ohio
supra
however
warrantless
searches
luggage
property
seized
time
arrest
justified
incident
arrest
either
search
remote
time
place
arrest
preston
exigency
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law
enforcement
officers
reduced
luggage
personal
property
immediately
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person
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exclusive
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longer
danger
arrestee
might
gain
access
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seize
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search
property
longer
incident
arrest
search
conducted
hour
federal
agents
gained
exclusive
control
footlocker
long
respondents
securely
custody
search
therefore
viewed
incidental
arrest
justified
exigency
even
though
record
issuance
warrant
judicial
officer
reasonably
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search
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line
point
property
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comes
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dominion
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protection
warrant
clause
evaluation
neutral
magistrate
privacy
interests
contents
footlocker
invaded
accordingly
judgment
affirmed
footnotes
fourth
amendment
provides
right
people
secure
persons
houses
papers
effects
unreasonable
searches
seizures
shall
violated
warrants
shall
issue
upon
probable
cause
supported
oath
affirmation
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things
seized
government
limited
question
presented
hether
search
warrant
required
federal
agents
may
open
locked
footlocker
properly
possession
probable
cause
believe
contains
contraband
accordingly
case
presents
issue
application
exclusionary
rule
government
historical
analysis
undercut
arguments
government
acknowledges
core
values
fourth
amendment
protects
privacy
interests
view
privacy
interests
receive
maximum
protection
governmental
search
seizure
provided
warrant
clause
include
private
oral
electronic
communication
addition
home
structures
office
hotel
room
brief
readily
apparent
government
contention
warrant
clause
applies
high
privacy
areas
within
without
home
reconciled
earlier
contention
judicial
warrants
appropriate
searches
conducted
within
private
dwellings
circumstances
involving
noncriminal
inventory
searches
probable
cause
search
irrelevant
recognized
search
warrants
required
linked
warrant
requirement
textually
concept
south
dakota
opperman
salutary
functions
warrant
simply
application
context
constitutional
reasonableness
inventory
searches
must
determined
bases
settled
law
years
least
since
boyd
known
breaking
doors
rummaging
drawers
constitutes
essence
offence
invasion
indefeasible
right
personal
security
personal
liberty
private
property
say
fourth
amendment
translates
precisely
constitutional
privacy
right
see
katz
may
often
case
automobiles
seized
absolutely
secure
storage
facilities
may
available
see
south
dakota
opperman
cady
dombrowski
size
inherent
mobility
vehicle
make
susceptible
theft
intrusion
vandals
respondents
principal
privacy
interest
footlocker
course
container
exposed
public
view
contents
search
interior
therefore
far
greater
intrusion
fourth
amendment
values
impoundment
footlocker
though
surely
substantial
infringement
respondents
use
possession
seizure
diminish
respondents
legitimate
expectation
footlocker
contents
remain
private
greatly
reduced
expectation
privacy
automobile
coupled
transportation
function
vehicle
made
chambers
unwilling
decide
whether
immediate
search
automobile
seizure
indefinite
immobilization
constituted
greater
interference
rights
owner
clearly
case
locked
luggage
course
may
justifications
warrantless
search
luggage
taken
suspect
time
arrest
example
officers
reason
believe
luggage
contains
immediately
dangerous
instrumentality
explosives
foolhardy
transport
station
house
without
opening
luggage
disarming
weapon
see
johnson
unlike
searches
person
robinson
edwards
searches
possessions
within
arrestee
immediate
control
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respondents
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justice
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fully
join
chief
justice
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write
comment
upon
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brother
blackmun
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blackmun
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amendment
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liberties
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noted
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ii
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view
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immediate
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justification
possibility
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person
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access
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officer
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chimel
california
justice
blackmun
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rehnquist
joins
dissenting
think
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government
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case
primarily
vindicate
extreme
view
fourth
amendment
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line
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robinson
police
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amendment
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amendment
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justification
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search
person
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amendment
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reasonable
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amendment
second
series
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concerns
consequences
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arrest
person
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automobile
car
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contents
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compartments
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cady
dombrowski
chambers
maroney
moreover
car
properly
impounded
reason
police
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standard
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contents
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cause
south
dakota
opperman
apply
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lines
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briefcase
suitcase
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police
well
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street
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case
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respondents
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maroney
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edwards
cardwell
lewis
plurality
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robinson
recognized
custodial
arrest
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deprivation
various
lesser
invasions
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regarded
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person
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interest
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possession
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impoundment
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pursuant
arrest
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warrant
examination
contents
protect
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privacy
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cases
police
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probable
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rejected
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property
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south
dakota
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law
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respondents
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leary
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station
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time
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amendment
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indeed
judge
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rel
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lawyers
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dilemma
sup
rev
footnotes
omitted
quoting
robinson
app
dissenting
opinion
rev
scope
automobile
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exception
warrant
requirement
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contents
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cases
cited
supra
courts
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construed
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issod
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california
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suitcase
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seat
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person
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railroad
station
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train
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agents
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men
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open
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likelihood
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attempt
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arrest
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endangering
innocent
bystanders