torcaso
watkins
argued
april
decided
june
appellant
appointed
governor
maryland
office
notary
public
denied
commission
declare
belief
god
required
maryland
constitution
claiming
requirement
violated
rights
first
fourteenth
amendments
sued
state
compel
issuance
commission
relief
denied
state
appeals
affirmed
holding
state
constitutional
provision
without
need
implementing
legislation
requires
declaration
belief
god
qualification
office
held
maryland
test
public
office
enforced
appellant
unconstitutionally
invades
freedom
belief
religion
guaranteed
first
amendment
protected
fourteenth
amendment
infringement
pp
md
reversed
leo
pfeffer
lawrence
speiser
argued
cause
appellant
briefs
joseph
sickles
carlton
sickles
bruce
goldberg
rowland
watts
george
kaufmann
thomas
finan
attorney
general
maryland
joseph
kaufman
deputy
attorney
general
argued
cause
filed
brief
appellee
ferdinand
sybert
former
attorney
general
maryland
stedman
prescott
former
deputy
attorney
general
appeared
kaufman
motion
dismiss
affirm
briefs
amici
curiae
urging
reversal
filed
herbert
wolff
leo
rosen
american
ethical
union
herbert
ehrmann
lawrence
peirez
isaac
mcnatt
abraham
blumberg
arnold
forster
paul
hartman
theodore
leskes
edwin
lukas
sol
rabkin
american
jewish
committee
et
al
justice
black
delivered
opinion
article
declaration
rights
maryland
constitution
provides
religious
test
ever
required
qualification
office
profit
trust
state
declaration
belief
existence
god
dispute
purpose
effect
maryland
declaration
rights
requirement
us
sets
religious
test
designed
valid
bar
every
person
refuses
declare
belief
god
holding
public
office
profit
trust
maryland
power
authority
state
maryland
thus
put
side
one
particular
sort
believers
willing
say
believe
existence
god
true
much
historical
precedent
laws
indeed
largely
escape
religious
test
oaths
declarations
great
many
early
colonists
left
europe
came
hoping
worship
way
soon
developed
however
many
fled
escape
religious
test
oaths
turned
perfectly
willing
power
force
dissenters
faith
take
test
oaths
conformity
faith
brought
host
laws
new
colonies
imposing
burdens
disabilities
various
kinds
upon
varied
beliefs
depending
largely
upon
group
happened
politically
strong
enough
legislate
favor
beliefs
effect
formal
practical
establishment
particular
religious
faiths
colonies
consequent
burdens
imposed
free
exercise
faiths
nonfavored
believers
however
wise
men
colonies
many
mention
spoke
test
oaths
philosophy
intolerance
behind
one
happens
george
calvert
first
lord
baltimore
took
important
part
original
establishment
colony
maryland
catholic
reason
felt
compelled
conscience
refuse
take
oath
supremacy
england
cost
resigning
high
governmental
office
refused
take
oath
demanded
council
colony
virginia
result
denied
settlement
colony
recent
historian
early
period
maryland
life
said
calvert
hope
purpose
establish
maryland
colonial
government
free
religious
persecutions
known
one
securely
beyond
reach
oaths
constitution
adopted
desire
put
people
securely
beyond
reach
religious
test
oaths
brought
inclusion
article
vi
document
provision
religious
test
shall
ever
required
qualification
office
public
trust
article
vi
supports
accuracy
observation
girouard
test
oath
abhorrent
tradition
satisfied
however
article
vi
guarantees
original
constitution
first
congress
proposed
shortly
thereafter
adopted
bill
rights
including
first
amendment
amendment
broke
new
constitutional
ground
protection
sought
afford
freedom
religion
speech
press
petition
assembly
since
prior
cases
thoroughly
explored
documented
history
behind
first
amendment
reasons
scope
religious
freedom
protects
need
cover
ground
said
prior
cases
think
controls
decision
cantwell
connecticut
said
first
amendment
declares
congress
shall
make
law
respecting
establishment
religion
prohibiting
free
exercise
thereof
fourteenth
amendment
rendered
legislatures
incompetent
congress
enact
laws
thus
amendment
embraces
two
concepts
freedom
believe
freedom
act
first
absolute
nature
things
second
establishment
religion
clause
first
amendment
means
least
neither
state
federal
government
set
church
neither
pass
laws
aid
one
religion
aid
religions
prefer
one
religion
another
neither
force
influence
person
go
remain
away
church
force
profess
belief
disbelief
religion
person
punished
entertaining
professing
religious
beliefs
disbeliefs
church
attendance
tax
amount
large
small
levied
support
religious
activities
institutions
whatever
may
called
whatever
form
may
adopt
teach
practice
religion
neither
state
federal
government
openly
secretly
participate
affairs
religious
organizations
groups
vice
versa
words
jefferson
clause
establishment
religion
law
intended
erect
wall
separation
church
state
agreed
first
fourteenth
amendments
secular
reach
far
penetrating
conduct
government
merely
forbid
established
renew
conviction
staked
existence
country
faith
complete
separation
state
religion
best
state
best
religion
repeat
reaffirm
neither
state
federal
government
constitutionally
force
person
profess
belief
disbelief
religion
neither
constitutionally
pass
laws
impose
requirements
aid
religions
neither
aid
religions
based
belief
existence
god
religions
founded
different
beliefs
upholding
state
religious
test
public
office
highest
maryland
said
petitioner
compelled
believe
disbelieve
threat
punishment
compulsion
true
unless
makes
declaration
belief
hold
public
office
maryland
compelled
hold
office
maryland
religious
test
public
office
unconstitutionally
invades
appellant
freedom
belief
religion
therefore
enforced
judgment
appeals
maryland
accordingly
reversed
cause
remanded
proceedings
inconsistent
opinion
reversed
remanded
footnotes
md
appellant
alternative
contention
test
violates
maryland
constitution
also
rejected
state
courts
see
stokes
church
state
see
also
cases
cited
note
infra
letter
virginia
council
king
privy
council
quoted
hanley
rights
liberties
newman
press
follows
according
instructions
lordship
usual
course
held
place
tendered
oaths
supremacy
allegiance
lordship
baltimore
followers
making
profession
romish
religion
utterly
refused
take
lordship
offered
take
oath
copy
whereof
included
imagine
much
latitude
left
us
decline
prescribed
form
strictly
exacted
well
justified
defended
pen
late
sovereign
lord
king
james
happy
memory
among
many
blessings
favors
bound
bless
god
none
whereby
hath
made
happy
freedom
religion
papists
suffered
settle
abode
amongst
us
hanley
op
supra
congress
shall
make
law
respecting
establishment
religion
prohibiting
free
exercise
thereof
abridging
freedom
speech
press
right
people
peaceably
assemble
petition
government
redress
grievances
see
opinions
also
concurring
dissenting
opinions
reynolds
davis
beason
cantwell
connecticut
west
virginia
state
bd
education
barnette
fowler
rhode
island
everson
board
education
illinois
ex
rel
mccollum
board
education
mcgowan
maryland
later
zorach
clauson
justice
frankfurter
stated
dissent
result
mccollum
case
based
principles
received
unanimous
acceptance
barring
single
vote
one
famous
letters
landholder
published
december
oliver
ellsworth
member
federal
constitutional
convention
later
chief
justice
included
among
strong
arguments
religious
test
oaths
following
statement
short
utterly
ineffectual
security
men
loose
principles
external
compliance
evade
exclude
persons
honest
men
men
principle
rather
suffer
injury
act
contrary
dictates
consciences
quoted
ford
essays
constitution
see
also
elliot
debates
several
state
conventions
adoption
federal
constitution
discussing
article
vi
debate
north
carolina
convention
adoption
federal
constitution
james
iredell
later
justice
said
objected
people
america
may
perhaps
choose
representatives
religion
pagans
mahometans
may
admitted
offices
possible
exclude
set
men
without
taking
away
principle
religious
freedom
warmly
contend
among
religions
country
teach
generally
considered
belief
existence
god
buddhism
taoism
ethical
culture
secular
humanism
others
see
washington
ethical
society
district
columbia
app
fellowship
humanity
county
alameda
cal
app
ii
encyclopaedia
social
sciences
encyclopaedia
britannica
ed
archer
faiths
men
live
ed
revised
purinton
world
almanac
year
book
american
churches
quoting
public
workers
mitchell