florida royer argued october decided march purchasing airline ticket new york city miami international airport assumed name checking two suitcases bearing identification tags assumed name respondent went concourse leading airline boarding area approached two detectives previously observed believed characteristics fit drug courier profile upon request without oral consent respondent produced airline ticket driver license carried correct name detectives asked discrepancy names respondent explained friend made ticket reservation assumed name detectives informed respondent narcotics investigators reason suspect transporting narcotics without returning airline ticket driver license asked accompany small room adjacent concourse without respondent consent one detectives retrieved respondent luggage airline brought room respond detectives request consent search luggage respondent produced key unlocked one suitcases marihuana found respondent said know combination lock second suitcase object opened officers pried open found marihuana respondent told arrest following florida trial denial pretrial motion suppress evidence obtained search suitcases respondent convicted felony possession marihuana florida district appeal reversed holding respondent involuntarily confined within small room without probable cause time consent search obtained involuntary detention exceeded limited restraint permitted terry ohio consent therefore invalid tainted unlawful confinement held judgment affirmed affirmed justice white joined justice marshall justice powell justice stevens concluded respondent illegally detained consented search luggage consent tainted illegality hence ineffective justify search pp detectives identified narcotics agents told respondent suspected transporting narcotics asked accompany police room retaining airline ticket driver license without indicating way free depart respondent effectively seized purposes fourth amendment time respondent produced key suitcase detention subjected serious intrusion personal liberty allowable mere suspicion criminal activity begun consensual inquiry public place escalated investigatory procedure police interrogation room respondent practical matter arrest time moreover detectives conduct intrusive necessary effectuate investigative detention otherwise authorized terry line cases pp probable cause arrest respondent exist time consented search luggage justice brennan concurring result agreed point initial stop officers seizure respondent matured arrest unsupported probable cause respondent consent search suitcases therefore tainted illegal arrest calvin fox assistant attorney general florida argued cause petitioner briefs jim smith attorney general deputy solicitor general frey argued cause amicus curiae urging reversal brief solicitor general lee assistant attorney general jensen joshua schwartz deborah watson theodore klein argued cause respondent brief irwin block fred inbau wayne schmidt james manak robert corbin attorney general arizona steven twist chief assistant attorney general filed brief americans effective law enforcement et amici curiae urging reversal justice white announced judgment delivered opinion justice marshall justice powell justice stevens joined required case determine whether appeal florida third district properly applied precepts fourth amendment holding respondent royer illegally detained time purported consent search luggage january royer observed miami international airport two plainclothes detectives dade county public safety department assigned county organized crime bureau narcotics investigation section detectives johnson magdalena believed royer appearance mannerisms luggage actions fit drug courier profile royer apparently unaware attention attracted purchased ticket new york city checked two suitcases placing suitcase identification tag bearing name holt destination la guardia royer made way concourse led airline boarding area two detectives approached identified policemen working sheriff office asked royer moment speak royer said yes upon request without oral consent royer produced detectives airline ticket driver license airline ticket like baggage identification tags bore name holt driver license carried respondent correct name royer detectives asked discrepancy royer explained friend made reservation name holt royer became noticeably nervous conversation whereupon detectives informed royer fact narcotics investigators reason suspect transporting narcotics detectives return airline ticket identification asked royer accompany room approximately feet away adjacent concourse royer said nothing response went officers asked room later described detective johnson large storage closet located stewardesses lounge containing small desk two chairs without royer consent agreement detective johnson using royer baggage check stubs retrieved holt luggage airline brought room respondent detective magdalena waiting royer asked consent search suitcases without orally responding request royer produced key unlocked one suitcases one detective opened without seeking assent royer marihuana found suitcase according detective johnson royer stated know combination lock second suitcase asked objected detective opening second suitcase royer said go ahead object detective explained suitcase might broken open suitcase pried open officers marihuana found royer told arrest approximately minutes elapsed time detectives initially approached respondent arrest upon discovery contraband prior trial felony possession marihuana royer made motion suppress evidence obtained search suitcases trial found royer consent search freely voluntarily given regardless consent warrantless search reasonable officer time run get search warrant plane going take following denial motion suppress royer changed plea guilty nolo contendere specifically reserving right appeal denial motion suppress royer convicted district appeal sitting en banc reversed royer conviction held royer involuntarily confined within small room without probable cause involuntary detention exceeded limited restraint permitted terry ohio time consent search obtained consent search therefore invalid tainted unlawful confinement several factors led conclude respondent confinement tantamount arrest royer found small enclosed area confronted two police officers situation presents almost classic definition imprisonment detectives statement royer suspected transporting narcotics also bolstered finding royer custody time consent search given ibid addition detectives possession royer airline ticket retrieval possession luggage made clear district appeal view royer free leave ibid suppression hearing royer testified impression free leave officers presence florida district appeal found apprehension much subjective belief state conceded oral argument officers permitted royer leave room even erroneously thought ibid nomenclature used describe royer confinement found unimportant dunaway new york police confinement goes beyond limited restraint terry investigatory stop may constitutionally justified probable cause omitted detective johnson conducted search specifically stated suppression hearing probable cause arrest royer suitcases opened contents revealed ibid absence probable cause concluded royer consent search given unlawfully confined ineffective justify search ibid proof break chain illegality occurred found royer consent invalid matter law granted state petition certiorari affirm ii preliminary observations order first unquestioned without warrant search royer luggage absence probable cause exigent circumstances validity search depended royer purported consent neither disputed validity search rests consent state burden proving necessary consent obtained freely voluntarily given burden satisfied showing mere submission claim lawful authority sales new york schneckloth bustamonte bumper north carolina johnson amos second law enforcement officers violate fourth amendment merely approaching individual street another public place asking willing answer questions putting questions person willing listen offering evidence criminal prosecution voluntary answers questions see dunaway new york supra terry ohio harlan concurring white concurring fact officer identifies police officer without convert encounter seizure requiring level objective justification mendenhall opinion stewart person approached however need answer question put indeed may decline listen questions may go way terry ohio harlan concurring white concurring may detained even momentarily without reasonable objective grounds refusal listen answer without furnish grounds mendenhall supra opinion stewart detention seizure within meaning fourth amendment constitutional rights infringed third also clear seizures person must justified probable cause arrest crime prior terry ohio supra restraint person amounting seizure purposes fourth amendment invalid unless justified probable cause dunaway new york supra terry created limited exception general rule certain seizures justifiable fourth amendment articulable suspicion person committed commit crime case stop frisk weapons found unexceptionable adams williams applied approach context informant report unnamed individual nearby vehicle carrying narcotics gun although expressly authorized terry unequivocal saying reasonable suspicion criminal activity warrants temporary seizure purpose questioning limited purpose stop purpose verify dispel suspicion immigration laws violated governmental interest sufficient warrant temporary detention limited questioning royer suggest similar rationale warrant temporary detention questioning less probable cause public interest involved suppression illegal transactions drugs serious crime michigan summers involved another circumstance temporary detention less probable cause satisfied ultimate test reasonableness fourth amendment occupant house detained search warrant house executed held warrant made occupant sufficiently suspect justify temporary seizure limited intrusio personal security person detained justified substantial law enforcement interests seizure made articulable suspicion amounting probable cause fourth terry progeny nevertheless created limited exceptions general rule seizures person require probable cause arrest detentions may investigative yet violative fourth amendment absent probable cause name investigating person suspected criminal activity police may carry full search person automobile effects may police seek verify suspicions means approach conditions arrest dunaway new york supra made clear suspect taken police station home without formally arrested interrogated hour resulting incriminating statements held inadmissible reasonable suspicion crime insufficient justify custodial interrogation even though interrogation investigative brown illinois davis mississippi effect fourth amendment prohibition unreasonable searches seizures always interpreted prevent search limited particularly described place searched persons things seized amdt even search made pursuant warrant based upon probable cause amendment protection diluted situations determined legitimate law enforcement interests justify warrantless search search must limited scope justified particular purposes served exception example warrantless search permissible incident lawful arrest legitimate concerns safety officer prevent destruction evidence arrestee chimel california nevertheless search limited person arrestee area immediately within control terry ohio supra also embodies principle scope search must strictly tied justified circumstances rendered initiation permissible quoting warden hayden fortas concurring reasonableness requirement fourth amendment requires less police action seizure permitted less probable cause legitimate law enforcement interests scope detention must carefully tailored underlying justification predicate permitting seizures suspicion short probable cause law enforcement interests warrant limited intrusion personal security suspect scope intrusion permitted vary extent particular facts circumstances case much however clear investigative detention must temporary last longer necessary effectuate purpose stop similarly investigative methods employed least intrusive means reasonably available verify dispel officer suspicion short period time see supra adams williams supra state burden demonstrate seizure seeks justify basis reasonable suspicion sufficiently limited scope duration satisfy conditions investigative seizure fifth dunaway brown hold statements given period illegal detention inadmissible even though voluntarily given product illegal detention result independent act free dunaway new york brown illinois supra respect cases reiterated one principal holdings wong sun sixth events case amounted permissible police encounter public place justifiable detention royer consent voluntary effective legalize search two suitcases cf watson florida district appeal case us however concluded royer seized gave consent search luggage also bounds investigative stop exceeded view confinement case went beyond limited restraint terry investigative stop royer consent thus tainted illegality conclusion required reversal absence probable cause arrest question us whether record warrants conclusion think iii state proffers three reasons holding royer consented search luggage illegally detained first submitted entire encounter consensual hence royer held find submission untenable asking examining royer ticket driver license doubt permissible officers identified narcotics agents told royer suspected transporting narcotics asked accompany police room retaining ticket driver license without indicating way free depart royer effectively seized purposes fourth amendment circumstances surely amount show official authority reasonable person believed free leave mendenhall opinion stewart omitted second state submits royer seized existed reasonable articulable suspicion justify temporary detention limits stop never exceeded agree state officers discovered royer traveling assumed name fact facts already known officers paying cash ticket mode checking two bags royer appearance conduct general adequate grounds suspecting royer carrying drugs temporarily detaining luggage attempted verify dispel suspicions manner exceed limits investigative detention also agree royer voluntarily consented search luggage justifiably detained reasonable suspicion products search admissible concluded however time royer produced key suitcase detention subjected serious intrusion personal liberty allowable mere suspicion criminal activity time royer informed officers wished examine luggage identified approached officers attempted explain discrepancy name shown identification name purchased ticket identified luggage officers satisfied informed narcotics agents reason believe carrying illegal drugs requested accompany police room royer went found small room large closet equipped desk two chairs alone two police officers told thought carrying narcotics also found officers without consent retrieved checked luggage airline begun consensual inquiry public place escalated investigatory procedure police interrogation room police unsatisfied previous explanations sought confirm suspicions officers royer ticket identification seized luggage royer never informed free board plane chose reasonably believed detained least moment consensual aspects encounter evaporated fault florida district appeal concluding terry ohio cases following justify restraint royer subjected practical matter royer arrest consistent conclusion state conceded florida courts royer free leave interrogation room asked furthermore state brief interprets testimony officers suppression hearing indicating royer refused consent search luggage officers held luggage sought warrant authorize search brief petitioner also think officers conduct intrusive necessary effectuate investigative detention otherwise authorized terry line cases first returning ticket driver license informing free go desired officers might obviated claim encounter anything consensual matter start finish second undoubtedly reasons safety security justify moving suspect one location another investigatory detention airport concourse private area cf pennsylvania mimms per curiam indication case reasons prompted officers transfer site encounter concourse interrogation room appears rather primary interest officers extended conversation royer contents luggage matter officers pursue orally royer encounter relocated police room record reflect facts support finding legitimate law enforcement purposes justified detention first instance furthered removing royer police room prior officers attempt gain consent search luggage noted royer consented search spot search conducted royer present area bags retrieved detective johnson evidence recovered admissible search proved negative royer free go much earlier less likelihood missing flight serious matter variety circumstances third state touched question whether feasible investigate contents royer bags expeditious way courts strangers use trained dogs detect presence controlled substances luggage indication means feasible available used royer luggage momentarily detained investigative procedure carried indeed may detention necessary negative result freed royer short order positive result resulted justifiable arrest probable cause suggest test distinguishing consensual encounter seizure determining seizure exceeds bounds investigative stop even discrete category airport encounters endless variations facts circumstances much variation unlikely courts reduce sentence paragraph rule provide unarguable answers question whether unreasonable search seizure violation fourth amendment nevertheless must render judgment think florida district appeal faulted concluding limits exceeded iv state third final argument royer illegally held gave consent probable cause arrest time detective johnson testified suppression hearing florida district appeal held probable cause arrest royer bags opened fact officers believe probable cause proceeded consensual rationale foreclose state justifying royer custody proving probable cause hence removing barrier relying royer consent search peters new york decided sibron new york agree florida district appeal however probable cause arrest royer exist time consented search luggage facts nervous young man two american tourister bags paid cash airline ticket target city facts led inquiry turn revealed ticket bought assumed name proffered explanation satisfy officers agree state position every nervous young man paying cash ticket new york city assumed name carrying two heavy american tourister bags may arrested held answer serious felony charge affirm florida district appeal conclusion royer illegally detained consented search luggage agree consent tainted illegality ineffective justify search judgment florida district appeal accordingly affirmed footnotes drug courier profile abstract characteristics found typical persons transporting illegal drugs royer case detectives attention attracted following facts considered within profile royer carrying american tourister luggage appeared heavy young apparently casually dressed appeared pale nervous looking around people paid ticket cash large number bills rather completing airline identification tag attached checked baggage space name address telephone number wrote name destination app stat app florida law plea nolo contendere equivalent plea guilty appeal panel district appeal florida found viewing totality circumstances finding consent trial supported clear convincing evidence panel decision vacated rehearing en banc granted decision en banc reviewed florida also opinion mere similarity contents drug courier profile insufficient even constitute articulable suspicion required justify stop authorized terry ohio went hold even followed contrary rule even articulable suspicion occurred point prior royer consent search facts amount probable cause justify restraint imposed royer become clear disagree issue concur probable cause arrest lacking brief oral argument state contests whether concession ever made basis question statement florida decision consistent judgment mendenhall mendenhall respondent walking along airport concourse approached two federal drug enforcement agency dea officers present case officers asked mendenhall airline ticket identification names ticket identification match one agents specifically identified attached dea mendenhall became visibly shaken nervous returning ticket identification one officer asked mendenhall accompany dea airport office feet away questions office mendenhall asked consent search person handbag advised right decline ibid private room following assurance mendenhall consented search policewoman began search mendenhall person requesting mendenhall disrobe began undress mendenhall removed two concealed packages appeared contain heroin handed policewoman appeals determined initial stop mendenhall unlawful based upon reasonable suspicion criminal activity alternative found even initial stop permissible officer request mendenhall accompany dea office constituted arrest without probable cause reversed two justices view entire encounter consensual seizure taken place three justices assumed seizure held reasonable suspicion warrant hence voluntary consent search valid basis search thus five justices voting reverse appeared agree mendenhall illegally detained consented searched four dissenting justices also assumed detention view reasonable grounds suspecting mendenhall exist concluded mendenhall thus illegally detained time consent case us differs important respects royer ticket identification remained possession officers throughout encounter officers also seized possession luggage practical matter royer leave airport without mendenhall luggage involved ticket identification immediately returned officers careful advise suspect decline searched officers seized royer luggage made effort advise need consent search courts appeals disagreement whether using dog detect drugs luggage search appeals held articulable suspicion necessary justify kind warrantless search indeed search see sullivan search cert denied burns beale sniff intrusion requiring reasonable suspicion cert pending furthermore law circuit case comes use canines constitute neither search seizure fourth amendment goldstein cert denied see viera cert denied decisions appeals fifth circuit rendered prior september binding precedent appeals eleventh circuit bonner city prichard event hold officers reasonable suspicion believe royer luggage contained drugs assume use dogs investigation entailed prolonged detention either royer luggage may involve fourth amendment concerns beale supra example briefly questioning two suspects checked baggage flight fort lauderdale airport officers proceeded baggage area trained dog alerted one checked bags meanwhile suspects boarded plane california bags sniffed trained dog arrested appeals ninth circuit vacated judgment convicting suspects ground articulable suspicion necessary justify use trained dog sniff luggage existence requirement determined district case us officers founded suspicion detained royer brief period florida authorities busy airports seem able carry procedure justice powell concurring join plurality opinion airport stop questioning case similar general setting us mendenhall plurality opinion today discussed helpfully principles applicable investigative stops questioning since author one opinions mendenhall write briefly repeat public compelling interest identifying lawful means traffic illicit drugs personal profit plurality opinion emphasizes ante facts circumstances investigative stops necessarily vary view extent air transportation used drug traffic fact stop issue made trained officers airport warrants special consideration case however differs strikingly mendenhall circumstances following lawful initial questioning request suspect accompany officers private place royer found small windowless room described large closet alone two officers without consent already obtained possession checked luggage addition retained driver license airline ticket neither evidence case common sense suggests royer free walk away agree plurality practical matter arrest surrender luggage key officers viewed consensual plurality notes ante five justices mendenhall view respondent case illegally detained therefore consented searched since drug enforcement administration assigned highly skilled agents major airports part nationwide program intercept drug couriers agents guided part drug courier profile identifies characteristics experience shown relevant identifying suspects see mendenhall justice brennan concurring result case florida district appeal decision rested holding point initial stop officers seizure royer matured arrest unsupported probable cause en banc royer consent search suitcases therefore tainted illegal arrest district appeal conclusion amply supported record decision dunaway new york therefore concur district appeal judgment affirmed plurality reaches certain issues clearly need reach support affirmance extent plurality endorses legality officers initial stop royer see post rehnquist dissenting wholly unnecessary reach question even assuming legality initial stop plurality correctly holds agree officers subsequent actions clearly exceeded permissible bounds terry investigative stop ante ny exception cover seizure intrusive case threaten swallow general rule fourth amendment seizures reasonable based probable cause dunaway new york supra thus plurality discussion permissible scope terry investigative stops also unnecessary decision emphasize terry ohio limited decision expressly declined address constitutional propriety investigative seizure upon less probable cause purposes detention interrogation terry simply held certain carefully defined circumstances police officer entitled protection others area conduct carefully limited search outer clothing attempt discover weapons might used assault adams williams endorsed brief investigative stops based reasonable suspicion search weapons upheld case limited based terry safety rationale adams stated purpose limited weapons search discover evidence crime allow officer pursue investigation without fear violence ibid held officer observations lead reasonably suspect particular vehicle may contain aliens illegally country may stop car briefly investigate circumstances provoke suspicion based holding importance governmental interest stemming flow illegal aliens minimal intrusion brief stop absence practical alternatives policing border ibid noted limited holdings terry adams authorizing police question driver passengers citizenship immigration status ask explain suspicious circumstances expressly stated detention search must based consent probable cause see also dunaway new york supra discussing narrow scope terry progeny scope investigative stop attendant search must extremely limited terry exception swallow general rule fourth amendment seizures searches reasonable based probable cause dunaway new york supra view suggestion terry standard justifies anything briefest detentions limited searches finds support terry line cases event dissent plurality view initial stop royer legal plainly royer seized purposes fourth amendment officers asked produce driver license airline ticket terry stated whenever police officer accosts individual restrains freedom walk away seized person although agree personal intercourse policemen citizens involves seizures persons policemen may approach citizens street ask questions without seizing purposes fourth amendment officer identified asked traveler identification airline ticket traveler seized within meaning fourth amendment identifying asking royer airline ticket driver license officers practical matter engaged show authority restrained royer liberty ibid simply wrong suggest traveler feels free walk away approached individuals identified police officers asked received airline ticket driver license terry seizures persons based probable cause held satisfy fourth amendment dunaway new york stated supra however terry adams establish appropriate circumstances fourth amendment allows properly limited search seizure facts constitute probable cause arrest search contraband evidence crime justify seizure officer must reasonable suspicion criminal activity based specific articulable facts rational inferences facts terry ohio see also brown texas case officers decided approach royer carrying american tourister luggage appeared heavy young casually dressed appeared pale nervous looking around people paid airline ticket cash large number bills completely fill identification tags luggage checked new york see ante facts clearly sufficient provide reasonable suspicion criminal activity necessary justify officers subsequent seizure royer indeed considered individually collectively perfectly consistent innocent behavior possibly give rise inference supporting reasonable suspicion criminal activity officers seizure royer therefore illegal although recognize traffic illicit drugs matter pressing national concern excuse exercising unflagging duty strike official activity exceeds confines constitution discussing fourth amendment coolidge new hampshire justice stewart stated times unrest whether caused crime racial conflict fear internal subversion basic law values represents may appear unrealistic extravagant values authors fundamental constitutional concepts plurality opinion must allow zeal effective law enforcement blind us peril free society lies disregard protections afforded fourth amendment interpret plurality requirement investigative methods employed pursuant terry stop least intrusive means reasonably available verify dispel officer suspicion short period time ante mean availability less intrusive means may make otherwise reasonable stop unreasonable interpret mean absence less intrusive means make otherwise unreasonable stop reasonable addition contrary plurality apparent suggestion certain use trained narcotics dogs constitutes less intrusive means conducting lawful terry investigative stop see ante suggestion finds support cases question concerning use trained dogs detect presence controlled substances luggage clearly us event relevance least intrusive means requirement within context terry investigative stop clear discussed lawful stop must strictly limited difficult conceive less intrusive means effective accomplish purpose stop justice blackmun dissenting justice powell concurring mendenhall observed public compelling interest detecting traffic deadly drugs personal profit problems affecting health welfare population particularly young cause greater concern escalating use controlled substances much drug traffic highly organized conducted sophisticated criminal syndicates profits enormous many drugs may easily concealed result obstacles detection illegal conduct may unmatched area law enforcement florida district appeal third district held respondent royer arrested without probable cause consented search luggage consent therefore tainted illegal detention concur plurality adoption fourth amendment seizure standard proposed justice stewart mendenhall fourth amendment protections apply official authority exercised reasonable person believed free leave ante quoting quarrel plurality conclusion point encounter threshold passed also agree information available prior opening royer suitcases constitute probable cause arrest thus probable cause required seizure illegal resulting consent search invalid dunaway new york brown illinois dispositive issue however whether officers needed probable cause arrest take actions led royer consent subsequent discovery contraband conclude key principle fourth amendment reasonableness balancing competing interests michigan summers quoting dunaway new york white concurring previous cases suggest analysis distinguish seizures requiring probable cause requiring reasonable suspicion one hand formal arrest seizure essential attributes formal arrest unreasonable unless supported probable cause michigan summers hand limited intrusion supported special law enforcement need greater flexibility may justifiable lesser reasonable suspicion standard lesser seizures confined momentary detention accompanied frisk weapons ibid case seizure less intrusive formal arrest determining whether less demanding standard applied requires balancing amount intrusion upon individual privacy special law enforcement interests served permitting intrusion less probable cause see michigan summers mendenhall powell concurring part dunaway new york white concurring suppression hearing case royer agreed formally arrested suitcases opened app view fairly said prior formal arrest functional equivalent arrest taken place encounter far common automobile stops justifiable reasonable suspicion see detention deemed functional equivalent formal arrest dunaway new york supra dunaway suspect taken neighbor home involuntarily transported police station squad car precinct house placed interrogation room subjected extended custodial interrogation royer taken private residence reasonable expectations privacy perhaps greatest instead approached major international airport due part extensive antihijacking surveillance equipment reasonable privacy expectations significantly lesser magnitude certainly greater reasonable privacy expectations travelers automobiles see automobile stop cases indeed every case upheld seizures upon reasonable suspicion royer questioned found questions directly related purpose stop thus officers asked royer identity purposes travel suspicious circumstances noted plurality appears concede ante probable cause certainly required point officers conduct fully supported reasonable suspicion followed within scope lesser intrusions approved less probable cause prior cases far removed circumstances dunaway context automobile stops held officer may question driver passengers citizenship immigration status may ask explain suspicious circumstances detention search must based consent probable cause quoted approval dunaway royer subjected custodial interrogation probable cause required dunaway instead officers first sought royer consent move detention feet police room sought consent search luggage question whether dunaway move involuntary case probable cause might required whether mendenhall royer consented voluntarily change locale like justice rehnquist post understand plurality dispute royer consented go police room detention point unlawful voluntariness royer consent judged totality circumstances schneckloth bustamonte mendenhall quoting sibron new york royer went voluntarily spirit apparent cooperation royer initially refused consent search suitcases officers continued detention hope change mind situation much closer dunaway presented room royer consented search immediately upon request neither plurality florida appeal suggests judged totality circumstances royer consent search involuntary thus officers case followed formula lesser intrusions set forth approved dunaway beyond initial stop properly limited questioning detention search based royer consent certainly intrusion royer privacy extreme make countervailing public interest greater flexibility irrelevant question whether probable cause required consequently understand plurality fails balance character detention degree intruded upon royer privacy justification measured law enforcement interest nature articulable facts supporting detention michigan summers balance determine whether probable cause reasonable suspicion required support officers conduct whether conduct lawful appropriate standard ii officers case began encounter royer reasonable suspicion continued questioning requested cooperation facts heightening suspicion came attention certainly detention continues escalates greater degree reasonable suspicion necessary sustain point probable cause required intrusion minimal minutes transpired initial approach opening suitcases officers polite sought immediately obtained royer consent significant step process royer knew search suitcases turn contraband free go way thus seems clear police diligently pursuing means investigation likely resolve matter one way another soon michigan summers quoting lafave search seizure special need flexibility uncovering illicit drug couriers hardly debatable surely problem serious intractable problem illegal immigration discussed light extraordinary difficulty identifying drug couriers minimal intrusion case based particularized suspicion eminently reasonable dissent trial judge app appellate panel app found florida district appeal viewed evidence light favorable state contradict finding inconsistent possible finding time request made royer reasonably believed free leave officers presence officers framed request royer might believed choices moment accompany officers police room continue discussion public concourse consent moving discussion therefore voluntary even detention character police room transform encounter functional equivalent arrest see post rehnquist dissenting indeed plurality rely differences room one mendenhall distinguish encounter encounter held mendenhall require reasonable suspicion ante plurality instead points several differences case mendenhall officers retained royer ticket identification momentarily took possession royer luggage advise decline searched ante like justice powell considered question whether threshold seizure taken place mendenhall extremely close powell concurring part thus notwithstanding facts unlike suspect mendenhall royer adult caucasian male cf respondent female negro may felt unusually threatened officers white males irrelevant degree coercion differences noted plurality lead agree reasonable person royer circumstances felt free walk away differences transform otherwise identical encounter arguably consensual one seizure clearly requiring justification fourth amendment significant require conclusion royer subjected equivalent arrest officers acted reasonably taking royer baggage stubs bringing luggage police room without consent royer already surrendered suitcases third party airline officers brought suitcases immediately contents revealed royer gave consent thus royer privacy substantially invaded time moreover royer validly detained object encounter become securing royer consent search luggage luggage otherwise loaded onto airplane fact royer knew search likely turn contraband course irrelevant potential intrusiveness officers conduct must judged viewpoint innocent person royer position see wylie app cert denied like justice rehnquist post accept least intrusive alternative analysis plurality impose law fourth amendment see ante prior cases establish investigative detention must temporary last longer necessary effectuate purpose stop ibid detention issue fully met standard cases relied upon plurality however support proposition cites justice rehnquist chief justice justice join dissenting plurality meandering opinion contains little something everyone although affirms reversal judgment conviction scarcely said bespeak total indifference legitimate needs law enforcement agents seeking curb trafficking dangerous drugs indeed manner tone opinion brings mind old nursery rhyme king france forty thousand men marched hill marched back right people secure persons houses papers effects unreasonable searches seizures shall violated emphasis added facts case doubtless typical facing narcotics officers major airports throughout country may usefully stated somewhat different manner followed opinion plurality officers magdalena johnson members smuggling detail dade county public safety department created response growing drug problem miami airport duty airport january since one peak periods tourist season south florida caribbean may presumably take judicial notice airport probability crowded busy time detectives first saw royer walking airport concourse young man casually dressed carrying two heavily laden suitcases officers described nervous appearance looking around manner suggested trying detect avoid police officers approached officers followed royer ticket counter requested ticket new york city paying produced large roll cash small denomination bills peeled necessary amount affixed two baggage tags luggage checked rather filling full name address phone number spaces provided tags royer merely wrote words holt la guardia tag point officers approached royer identified asked moment talk answered affirmatively detectives asked see airline ticket identification although ticket name holt driver license name mark royer asked explain discrepancy said friend named holt made ticket reservation explanation course account use name holt baggage tags filled time royer become obviously nervous detectives told royer suspected transporting narcotics asked accompany questioning room adjacent concourse get general population airport app en banc royer agreed go room feet place detectives first approached royer described testimony one officers large storage closet stewardesses lounge converted room used smuggling detail ibid room contained desk two chairs time detectives also without royer consent retrieved royer suitcases place checked flight new york brought room concourse inside detectives asked royer consent search luggage dispel confirm suspicion smuggling narcotics plurality opinion describes happened without orally responding request royer produced key unlocked one suitcases detective opened without seeking assent royer marihuana found suitcase according detective johnson royer stated know combination lock second suitcase asked objected detective opening second suitcase royer said go ahead object detective explained suitcase might broken open suitcase pried open officers marihuana found royer told arrest approximately minutes elapsed time detectives initially approached respondent arrest upon discovery contraband ante plurality concedes initial conversation royer officers grounds suspecting royer carrying drugs temporarily detaining luggage attempted verify dispel suspicions ante see also michigan summers adams williams terry ohio agree information reached least level detectives learned among things royer carrying two heavy suitcases visibly nervous exhibiting behavior person trying identify evade police officers ticket counter major import center illicit drugs purchased ticket city major distribution center drugs paid ticket large roll small denomination bills avoiding need show identification filling baggage tags royer listed last name airport destination failing give full name address phone number provided spaces traveling assumed name florida felt even facts amount articulable suspicion reasoning behavior least equally usually far frequently consistent complete innocence evaluation evidence seems singularly akin observing stranger loitering near building shortly arsonist set fire building detained questioning solely basis fact conclusion reached even though stranger found loitering presence four buildings shortly arsonists likewise set fire one factors relied upon miami police may consistent innocence guilt combination several factors essence articulable suspicion probable cause point part company plurality opinion assessment reasonableness officers conduct following initial conversation royer plurality focuses transfer place interview main concourse airport room concourse observes royer found small room large closet equipped desk two chairs alone two police officers told thought carrying narcotics also found officers without consent retrieved checked luggage airline ante obviously quoted language intended convey stern disapproval described conduct officers mind merits disapproval eminently reasonable preferable officers detained royer questioning concededly right without paying attention fact luggage already checked flight new york might put aboard flight even though royer plane reasonable interrogate royer contents suitcases seek permission open suitcases retrieved busy main concourse miami airport rather find room concourse confrontation surely less embarrassing royer room large spacious rather small possessed three chairs rather two officers conduct made reasonable facts plurality answers questions extent attempts scarcely satisfying commences observation officers conduct intrusive necessary effectuate investigative detention otherwise authorized terry line cases ante earlier opinion plurality set stage standard familiar least intrusive means principle first amendment law suddenly carried fourth amendment law citation two cases adams williams see ante neither one lends support principle part fourth amendment law plurality goes say officers returned royer ticket driver license encounter clearly consensual plurality also good reasons justify moving royer one location another officers motives seeking examine luggage render reasons unavailing conclusion reason wholly escapes finally plurality suggests officers might examined royer bags expeditious way use trained dogs mind adds little saying aunt man uncle officers might taken different steps investigate royer may said virtually every investigative encounter one step question must decide unreasonable steps officers took respect suspect miami airport particular day point plurality stutters fudges hedges begun consensual inquiry public place escalated investigatory procedure police interrogation room police unsatisfied previous explanations sought confirm suspicions ante least moment consensual aspects encounter evaporated fault florida district appeal concluding terry ohio cases following justify restraint royer subjected practical matter royer arrest ibid since plurality concedes existence articulable suspicion least initial conversation royer remaining question whether detention royer period time permissible rule enunciated terry ohio although terry involved protective patdown weapons subsequent cases expanded permissible scope seizure adams williams supra upheld search seizure pistol carried suspect seated parked automobile allowed government officials stop divert visual inspection questioning automobiles suspected harboring illegal aliens stops including waiting time clearly approximated length time royer detained yet allowed made absense individualized suspicion reasonably located checkpoints emphasis supplied unless say commercial drug trafficking somehow quantitatively less weighty fourth amendment scale trafficking illegal aliens think articulable suspicion concededly focused upon royer justified length nature detention reasonableness officers activity case depend royer consent investigation nevertheless presence consent justifies action taken plurality seem dispute royer consented go room first instance certainly conclusion warranted totality circumstances schneckloth bustamonte facts similar addressed mendenhall majority determined consent accompany police officers voluntary royer told go room simply asked brief period questioning accompany detectives room royer informed officers wished question neither threats show force detectives johnson magdelena uniform display weapons detectives touch royer made demands fact royer admits detectives quite polite plurality concludes somewhere beginning journey resumption conversation room investigation became intrusive royer consent evaporated leaving practical matter arrest ante royer legally approached first instance consented accompany detectives room follow consent went smoke arrested upon entering room made clear mendenhall logical analysis focus whether environment room rendered subsequent consent search luggage involuntary said mendenhall fact room little evidence way coerced size room described large storage closet nothing record indicate royer resistance overborne anything room royer fourth year study ithaca college time since graduated degree communications simply continued cooperate detectives beginning encounter absent evidence objective indicia coercion even absent claim indicia royer size room transform voluntary consent search coerced consent several reasons reverse judgment florida district appeal plurality recites facts noting royer produced ticket identification without oral consent ante see infra make slightest difference royer orally consent opening first bag response request officers consent search royer produced key unlocked one many opaque nuances plurality opinion also agree plurality intimation detectives first approached questioned royer seizure occurred thus constitutional safeguards fourth amendment invoked ante ot personal intercourse policemen citizens involves seizures persons officer means physical force show authority way restrained liberty citizen may conclude seizure occurred terry ohio see also mendenhall opinion stewart powell concurring part herbst cert denied berd turner cert denied hill fry elmore cert denied facts case bear strong resemblance examined mendenhall supra case dea agents detroit metropolitan airport observed mendenhall last passenger deplane flight originating los angeles inside terminal mendenhall appeared nervous slowly scanned populace concourse walked slowly toward baggage area rather claim baggage however mendenhall asked directions eastern airlines ticket counter counter located another terminal mendenhall carried american airlines ticket flight detroit pittsburgh asked eastern airlines ticket trip mendenhall board eastern airlines flight agents stopped questioning three members concluded based observations alone agents reasonable suspicion justified stop powell joined burger blackmun concurring part two members reach question finding instead mendenhall never seized opinion stewart joined rehnquist extent present case differs mendenhall basis reasonable suspicion stronger facts us florida district appeal took specific exception officers conclusion royer appeared nervously attempting evade police contact lower said since police officers psychiatrists conclusion must completely disregarded however repeatedly emphasized trained police officer may draw inferences make deductions elude untrained person observing conduct see cortez noted example behavior suspect appears officer evading police contact see mendenhall supra opinion stewart plurality address use drug courier profiles narcotics investigations affirms decision florida district appeal took liberty fashion rule regard use profiles state concluded conformity drug courier profile without insufficient establish even reasonable suspicion criminal activity afoot emphasis deleted department justice drug enforcement administration instituted training programs narcotics officers wherein instruction given drug courier profile profile effect collective distilled experience narcotics officers concerning characteristics repeatedly seen drug smugglers one dea agent explained basically number characteristics attribute believe used pick drug couriers characteristics basically things normal travelers essentially started detail airport really know looking majority cases first started involved cases made based information law enforcement agencies airline personnel cases made certain characteristics noted among defendants later time began see pattern characteristics began using pick individuals suspected narcotic couriers without prior information mcclain supp ed success state local law enforcement agencies also instructed narcotics officers according drug courier profiles partly basis profile characteristics detectives johnson magdalena initially began surveillance royer certainly case use profile proved effective use drug courier profiles played important part number lower decisions see vasquez cert denied price diaz sullivan cert denied hill ballard smith scott cert denied beck fact function profile somewhat overplayed certainly law enforcement officer rely experience detection prevention crime likewise training police officers instruction focuses learned collective experience law enforcers drug courier profile example instruction intended provide mathematical formula automatically establishes grounds belief criminal activity afoot reasoning however simply characteristics accumulated profile given less weight assessing whether suspicion well founded case turn facts sheer logic dictates certain characteristics repeatedly found among drug smugglers existence characteristics particular case considered accordingly determining whether grounds believe investigation appropriate cf cortez drug courier profile unfamiliar held conformity certain aspects profile automatically create particularized suspicion justify investigatory stop reid georgia per curiam yet decision mendenhall made clear police officer entitled assess totality circumstances light training experience instruction drug courier profile part accumulated knowledge process amenable rules florida tried establish dealing hard certainties probabilities long law probabilities articulated practical people formulated certain conclusions human behavior jurors factfinders permitted law enforcement officers finally evidence thus collected must seen weighed terms library analysis scholars understood versed field law enforcement cortez supra see also brown texas see also ante question us whether record warrants conclusion ante think florida district appeal faulted concluding limits exceeded certainly owe deference florida conclusion see haynes washington citing stein new york fiske kansas detention royer also pass muster fourth amendment jurisprudence officers reasonable ground belief guilt prior adjournment room brinegar since officers clearly articulable suspicion justify detention terry ohio issue need decided case contrary florida view phase encounter contrasts sharply circumstances examined dunaway new york case police officers deliberately sought suspect neighbor house show force brought suspect police headquarters police car placed interrogation room questioned extensively giving miranda warning unlike dunaway royer brief questioning asked cooperate accompanying officers room feet away questioning proceed view general public characterization room closet quite misleading room contained one desk two chairs large enough allow three persons enter two heavy suitcases also relevant florida royer focused size room royer appealed conviction arguing consent search invalid matter law informed refuse consent panel florida properly rejected contention relying schneckloth bustamonte said proof knowledge right refuse sine qua non effective consent search rehearing en banc conviction reversed finding royer taken private room effect placed arrest