new jersey argued march decided january teacher new jersey high school upon discovering respondent freshman companion smoking cigarettes school lavatory violation school rule took principal office met assistant vice principal respondent response assistant vice principal questioning denied smoking claimed smoke assistant vice principal demanded see purse upon opening purse found pack cigarettes also noticed package cigarette rolling papers commonly associated use marihuana proceeded search purse thoroughly found marihuana pipe plastic bags fairly substantial amount money index card containing list students owed respondent money two letters implicated marihuana dealing thereafter state brought delinquency charges respondent juvenile denying respondent motion suppress evidence found purse held fourth amendment applied searches school officials search question reasonable one adjudged respondent delinquent appellate division new jersey superior affirmed trial finding fourth amendment violation vacated adjudication delinquency remanded grounds new jersey reversed ordered suppression evidence found respondent purse holding search purse unreasonable held fourth amendment prohibition unreasonable searches seizures applies searches conducted public school officials limited searches carried law enforcement officers school officials exempt amendment dictates virtue special nature authority schoolchildren carrying searches functions pursuant disciplinary policies mandated state statutes school officials act representatives state merely surrogates parents students claim parents immunity fourth amendment strictures pp schoolchildren legitimate expectations privacy may find necessary carry variety legitimate items reason conclude necessarily waived rights privacy items bringing onto school grounds striking balance schoolchildren legitimate expectations privacy school equally legitimate need maintain environment learning take place requires easing restrictions searches public authorities ordinarily subject thus school officials need obtain warrant searching student authority moreover school officials need held subject requirement searches based probable cause believe subject search violated violating law rather legality search student depend simply reasonableness circumstances search determining reasonableness search involves determination whether search justified inception whether conducted reasonably related scope circumstances justified interference first place ordinary circumstances search student school official justified inception reasonable grounds suspecting search turn evidence student violated violating either law rules school search permissible scope measures adopted reasonably related objectives search excessively intrusive light student age sex nature infraction pp standard search case unreasonable fourth amendment purposes first initial search cigarettes reasonable report assistant vice principal respondent smoking warranted reasonable suspicion cigarettes purse thus search justified despite fact cigarettes found constitute mere evidence violation rule second discovery rolling papers gave rise reasonable suspicion respondent carrying marihuana well cigarettes purse suspicion justified exploration turned evidence activities pp white delivered opinion burger powell rehnquist joined part ii brennan marshall stevens joined powell filed concurring opinion joined post blackmun filed opinion concurring judgment post brennan filed opinion concurring part dissenting part marshall joined post stevens filed opinion concurring part dissenting part marshall joined part brennan joined post allan nodes deputy attorney general new jersey reargued cause petitioner brief reargument irwin kimmelman attorney general victoria curtis bramson linda yoder gilbert miller deputy attorneys general briefs original argument kimmelman bramson lois de julio reargued cause respondent briefs joseph rodriguez andrew dillmann briefs amici curiae urging reversal filed solicitor general lee deputy solicitor general frey kathryn oberly national association secondary school principals et al ivan gluckman national school boards association gwendolyn gregory august steinhilber thomas shannon washington legal foundation daniel popeo paul kamenar new jersey school boards association paula mullaly thomas scully briefs amici curiae urging affirmance filed american civil liberties union et al mary heen burt neuborne richard larson barry goodman charles sims legal aid society city new york et al janet fink henry weintraub julia penny clark robert chanin filed brief national education association amicus curiae justice white delivered opinion granted certiorari case examine appropriateness exclusionary rule remedy searches carried violation fourth amendment public school authorities consideration proper application fourth amendment public schools however led us conclude search gave rise case us violate fourth amendment accordingly address questions proper standard assessing legality searches conducted public school officials application standard facts case march teacher piscataway high school middlesex county discovered two girls smoking lavatory one two girls respondent time high school freshman smoking lavatory violation school rule teacher took two girls principal office met assistant vice principal theodore choplick response questioning choplick companion admitted violated rule however denied smoking lavatory claimed smoke choplick asked come private office demanded see purse opening purse found pack cigarettes removed purse held accused lied reached purse cigarettes choplick also noticed package cigarette rolling papers experience possession rolling papers high school students closely associated use marihuana suspecting closer examination purse might yield evidence drug use choplick proceeded search purse thoroughly search revealed small amount marihuana pipe number empty plastic bags substantial quantity money bills index card appeared list students owed money two letters implicated marihuana dealing choplick notified mother police turned evidence drug dealing police request police mother took daughter police headquarters confessed selling marihuana high school basis confession evidence seized choplick state brought delinquency charges juvenile domestic relations middlesex county contending choplick search purse violated fourth amendment moved suppress evidence found purse well confession argued tainted allegedly unlawful search juvenile denied motion suppress state ex rel super although concluded fourth amendment apply searches carried school officials held school official may properly conduct search student person official reasonable suspicion crime process committed reasonable cause believe search necessary maintain school discipline enforce school policies emphasis original appeal final judgment juvenile divided appellate division affirmed trial finding fourth amendment violation vacated adjudication delinquency remanded determination whether knowingly voluntarily waived fifth amendment rights confessing state ex rel super appealed fourth amendment ruling new jersey reversed judgment appellate division ordered suppression evidence found purse state ex rel new jersey agreed lower courts fourth amendment applies searches conducted school officials also rejected state new jersey argument exclusionary rule employed prevent use juvenile proceedings evidence unlawfully seized school officials declining consider whether applying rule fruits searches school officials deterrent value held simply precedents establish official search violates constitutional rights evidence admissible criminal proceedings omitted respect question legality search agreed juvenile warrantless search school official violate fourth amendment long official reasonable grounds believe student possesses evidence illegal activity activity interfere school discipline order however two justices dissenting sharply disagreed juvenile conclusion search purse reasonable according majority contents purse bearing accusation possession cigarettes opposed smoking lavatory violate school rules mere desire evidence impeach claim smoke cigarettes justify search moreover even reasonable suspicion cigarettes purse justify search choplick suspicion one furnished specific information cigarettes purse finally leaving aside question whether choplick justified opening purse held evidence drug use saw inside justify extensive rummaging papers effects followed granted state new jersey petition certiorari although state argued new jersey search purse violate fourth amendment petition certiorari raised question whether exclusionary rule operate bar consideration juvenile delinquency proceedings evidence unlawfully seized school official without involvement law enforcement officers case first argued last term state conceded purpose argument standard devised new jersey determining legality school searches appropriate correctly applied standard state contended remedial purposes exclusionary rule well served applying searches conducted public authorities primarily engaged law enforcement although originally granted certiorari decide issue appropriate remedy juvenile proceedings unlawful school searches doubts regarding wisdom deciding question isolation broader question limits fourth amendment places activities school authorities prompted us order reargument question heard argument legality search purse satisfied search violate fourth amendment ii determining whether search issue case violated fourth amendment faced initially question whether amendment prohibition unreasonable searches seizures applies searches conducted public school officials hold beyond dispute federal constitution virtue fourteenth amendment prohibits unreasonable searches seizures state officers elkins accord mapp ohio wolf colorado equally indisputable proposition fourteenth amendment protects rights students encroachment public school officials fourteenth amendment applied protects citizen state creatures boards education excepted course important delicate highly discretionary functions none may perform within limits bill rights educating young citizenship reason scrupulous protection constitutional freedoms individual strangle free mind source teach youth discount important principles government mere platitudes west virginia state bd ed barnette may well true evil toward fourth amendment primarily directed resurrection practice using general warrants writs assistance authorize searches contraband officers crown see chadwick boyd never limited amendment prohibition unreasonable searches seizures operations conducted police rather long spoken fourth amendment strictures restraints imposed upon governmental action upon activities sovereign authority burdeau mcdowell accordingly held fourth amendment applicable activities civil well criminal authorities building inspectors see camara municipal occupational safety health act inspectors see marshall barlow even firemen entering privately owned premises battle fire see michigan tyler subject restraints imposed fourth amendment observed camara municipal supra basic purpose amendment recognized countless decisions safeguard privacy security individuals arbitrary invasions governmental officials individual interest privacy personal security suffers whether government motivation investigate violations criminal laws breaches statutory regulatory standards marshall barlow supra anomalous say individual private property fully protected fourth amendment individual suspected criminal behavior camara municipal supra notwithstanding general applicability fourth amendment activities civil authorities courts concluded school officials exempt dictates fourth amendment virtue special nature authority schoolchildren see state tex app teachers school administrators said act loco parentis dealings students authority parent state therefore subject limits fourth amendment ibid reasoning tension contemporary reality teachings held school officials subject commands first amendment see tinker des moines independent community school district due process clause fourteenth amendment see goss lopez school authorities state actors purposes constitutional guarantees freedom expression due process difficult understand deemed exercising parental rather public authority conducting searches students generally recognized concept parental delegation source school authority entirely consonant compulsory education laws ingraham wright today public school officials merely exercise authority voluntarily conferred individual parents rather act furtherance publicly mandated educational disciplinary policies see opinion state ex rel describing new jersey statutes regulating school disciplinary policies establishing authority school officials students carrying searches disciplinary functions pursuant policies school officials act representatives state merely surrogates parents claim parents immunity strictures fourth amendment iii hold fourth amendment applies searches conducted school authorities begin inquiry standards governing searches although underlying command fourth amendment always searches seizures reasonable reasonable depends context within search takes place determination standard reasonableness governing specific class searches requires balancing need search invasion search entails camara municipal supra one side balance arrayed individual legitimate expectations privacy personal security government need effective methods deal breaches public order recognized even limited search person substantial invasion privacy terry ohio also recognized searches closed items personal luggage intrusions protected privacy interests fourth amendment provides protection owner every container conceals contents plain view ross search child person closed purse bag carried person less similar search carried adult undoubtedly severe violation subjective expectations privacy course fourth amendment protect subjective expectations privacy unreasonable otherwise illegitimate see hudson palmer rawlings kentucky receive protection fourth amendment expectation privacy must one society prepared recognize legitimate hudson palmer supra state new jersey argued pervasive supervision children schools necessarily subject child virtually legitimate expectation privacy articles personal property unnecessarily carried school argument two factual premises fundamental incompatibility expectations privacy maintenance sound educational environment minimal interest child bringing items personal property school premises severely flawed although may take notice difficulty maintaining discipline public schools today situation dire students schools may claim legitimate expectations privacy recently recognized need maintain order prison prisoners retain legitimate expectations privacy cells goes almost without saying prisoner schoolchild stand wholly different circumstances separated harsh facts criminal conviction incarceration ingraham wright supra yet ready hold schools prisons need equated purposes fourth amendment state suggestion children legitimate need bring personal property schools seem well anchored reality students minimum must bring school supplies needed studies also keys money necessaries personal hygiene grooming addition students may carry persons purses wallets nondisruptive yet highly personal items photographs letters diaries finally students may perfectly legitimate reasons carry articles property needed connection extracurricular recreational activities short schoolchildren may find necessary carry variety legitimate noncontraband items reason conclude necessarily waived rights privacy items merely bringing onto school grounds child interest privacy must set substantial interest teachers administrators maintaining discipline classroom school grounds maintaining order classroom never easy recent years school disorder often taken particularly ugly forms drug use violent crime schools become major social problems see generally nie dept health education welfare violent schools safe schools safe school study report congress even schools spared severe disciplinary problems preservation order proper educational environment requires close supervision schoolchildren well enforcement rules conduct perfectly permissible undertaken adult events calling discipline frequent occurrences sometimes require immediate effective action goss lopez accordingly recognized maintaining security order schools requires certain degree flexibility school disciplinary procedures respected value preserving informality relationship see ingraham wright strike balance schoolchild legitimate expectations privacy school equally legitimate need maintain environment learning take place evident school setting requires easing restrictions searches public authorities ordinarily subject warrant requirement particular unsuited school environment requiring teacher obtain warrant searching child suspected infraction school rules criminal law unduly interfere maintenance swift informal disciplinary procedures needed schools cases dispensed warrant requirement burden obtaining warrant likely frustrate governmental purpose behind search camara municipal hold today school officials need obtain warrant searching student authority school setting also requires modification level suspicion illicit activity needed justify search ordinarily search even one may permissibly carried without warrant must based upon probable cause believe violation law occurred see sibron new york however probable cause irreducible requirement valid search fundamental command fourth amendment searches seizures reasonable although concept probable cause requirement warrant bear reasonableness search certain limited circumstances neither required supra powell concurring thus number cases recognized legality searches seizures based suspicions although reasonable rise level probable cause see terry ohio delaware prouse cf camara municipal supra careful balancing governmental private interests suggests public interest best served fourth amendment standard reasonableness stops short probable cause hesitated adopt standard join majority courts examined issue concluding accommodation privacy interests schoolchildren substantial need teachers administrators freedom maintain order schools require strict adherence requirement searches based probable cause believe subject search violated violating law rather legality search student depend simply reasonableness circumstances search determining reasonableness search involves twofold inquiry first one must consider whether action justified inception terry ohio second one must determine whether search actually conducted reasonably related scope circumstances justified interference first place ibid ordinary circumstances search student teacher school official justified inception reasonable grounds suspecting search turn evidence student violated violating either law rules school search permissible scope measures adopted reasonably related objectives search excessively intrusive light age sex student nature infraction standard trust neither unduly burden efforts school authorities maintain order schools authorize unrestrained intrusions upon privacy schoolchildren focusing attention question reasonableness standard spare teachers school administrators necessity schooling niceties probable cause permit regulate conduct according dictates reason common sense time reasonableness standard ensure interests students invaded necessary achieve legitimate end preserving order schools iv remains question legality search case recognize reasonable grounds standard applied new jersey consideration question substantially different standard adopted today nonetheless believe new jersey application standard strike search purse reflects somewhat crabbed notion reasonableness review facts surrounding search leads us conclude search sense unreasonable fourth amendment purposes incident gave rise case actually involved two separate searches first search cigarettes providing suspicion gave rise second search marihuana although fruits second search issue validity search marihuana must depend reasonableness initial search cigarettes reason suspect possessed marihuana first search taken place accordingly search cigarettes first turn attention new jersey pointed two grounds holding search cigarettes unreasonable first observed possession cigarettes illegal violation school rules contents purse therefore direct bearing infraction accused smoking lavatory smoking prohibited reason search purse second even assuming search purse might circumstances reasonable light accusation made new jersey concluded choplick particular case reasonable grounds suspect cigarettes purse best according choplick good hunch conclusions implausible accused smoking denied accusation strongest possible terms stated smoke surely said circumstances possession cigarettes irrelevant charges response charges possession cigarettes discovered corroborate report smoking undermine credibility defense charge smoking sure discovery cigarettes prove smoking lavatory strictly speaking necessarily inconsistent claim smoke universally recognized evidence relevant inquiry need conclusively prove ultimate fact issue tendency make existence fact consequence determination action probable less probable without evidence fed rule evid relevance possession cigarettes question whether smoking credibility denial smoked supplied necessary nexus item searched infraction investigation see warden hayden thus choplick fact reasonable suspicion cigarettes purse search justified despite fact cigarettes found constitute mere evidence violation ibid course new jersey also held choplick reasonable suspicion purse contain cigarettes conclusion puzzling teacher reported smoking lavatory certainly report gave choplick reason suspect carrying cigarettes cigarettes purse obvious place find choplick suspicion cigarettes purse inchoate unparticularized suspicion hunch terry ohio rather sort conclusio human behavior upon practical people including government officials entitled rely cortez course even teacher report true might pack cigarettes might borrowed cigarette someone else sharing cigarette another student requirement reasonable suspicion requirement absolute certainty sufficient probability certainty touchstone reasonableness fourth amendment hill california hypothesis carrying cigarettes purse unreasonable irrelevant hypotheses also consistent teacher accusation accordingly said choplick acted unreasonably examined purse see contained cigarettes conclusion choplick decision open purse reasonable brings us question search marihuana pack cigarettes located suspicion upon search marihuana founded provided choplick observed package rolling papers purse removed pack cigarettes although dispute reasonableness choplick belief rolling papers indicated presence marihuana contend scope search choplick conducted exceeded permissible bounds seized read certain letters implicated drug dealing argument unpersuasive discovery rolling papers concededly gave rise reasonable suspicion carrying marihuana well cigarettes purse suspicion justified exploration purse turned evidence activities pipe number plastic bags type commonly used store marihuana small quantity marihuana fairly substantial amount money circumstances unreasonable extend search separate zippered compartment purse search compartment revealed index card containing list people owe money well two letters inference involved marihuana trafficking substantial enough justify choplick examining letters determine whether contained evidence short conclude search marihuana unreasonable respect search resulting discovery evidence marihuana dealing reasonable new jersey decision exclude evidence juvenile delinquency proceedings fourth amendment grounds erroneous accordingly judgment new jersey reversed footnotes state federal courts considering questions struggled accommodate interests protected fourth amendment interest providing safe environment conducive education public schools courts resolved tension interests giving full force one side balance thus number cases courts held school officials conducting searches students private parties acting loco parentis therefore subject constraints fourth amendment see state alaska app cal app cal rptr donaldson cal app cal rptr state tex app mercer state tex civ app least one held hand fourth amendment applies full searches school officials search conducted without probable cause unreasonable see state mora la vacated remand la others held suggested standard applicable least police involved search see board ed community unit school dist supp sd picha wielgos supp nd state young search highly intrusive see anker majority courts addressed issue fourth amendment schools like new jersey case reached middle position fourth amendment applies searches conducted school authorities special needs school environment require assessment legality searches standard less exacting probable cause courts large upheld warrantless searches school authorities provided supported reasonable suspicion search uncover evidence infraction school disciplinary rules violation law see tarter raybuck bilbrey brown horton goose creek independent school bellnier lund supp ndny board ed community unit school dist supra cal app cal rptr state baccino del super state app state young supra app people ward app doe state app people state mckinnon app although considered matter courts also split whether exclusionary rule appropriate remedy fourth amendment violations committed school authorities georgia courts held although fourth amendment applies schools exclusionary rule see state young supra state lamb app jurisdictions applied rule exclude fruits unlawful school searches criminal trials delinquency proceedings see state mora supra people supra holding search purse violate fourth amendment implicitly determine exclusionary rule applies fruits unlawful searches conducted school authorities question whether evidence excluded criminal proceeding involves two discrete inquiries whether evidence seized violation fourth amendment whether exclusionary rule appropriate remedy violation neither question logically antecedent negative answer either question sufficient dispose case thus determination search issue case violate fourth amendment implies particular resolution question applicability exclusionary rule cf ingraham wright holding eighth amendment prohibition cruel unusual punishment applies punishments imposed criminal convictions hence apply punishment schoolchildren public school officials address question presented case whether schoolchild legitimate expectation privacy lockers desks school property provided storage school supplies express opinion standards governing searches areas school officials public authorities acting request school officials compare zamora pomeroy inasmuch school assumed joint control locker successfully maintained school right inspect people overton school administrators power consent search student locker state engerud satisfied context case student expectation privacy contents locker four years high school school locker home away home student stores kind personal effects protected fourth amendment see cases cited supra consider searches carried school authorities acting alone authority case present question appropriate standard assessing legality searches conducted school officials conjunction behest law enforcement agencies express opinion question cf picha wielgos supp nd holding probable cause standard applicable searches involving police decide whether individualized suspicion essential element reasonableness standard adopt searches school authorities contexts however held although quantum individualized suspicion usually prerequisite constitutional search seizure fourth amendment imposes irreducible requirement suspicion see also camara municipal exceptions requirement individualized suspicion generally appropriate privacy interests implicated search minimal safeguards available assure individual reasonable expectation privacy subject discretion official field delaware prouse citation omitted search purse based upon individualized suspicion violated school rules see infra need consider circumstances might justify school authorities conducting searches unsupported individualized suspicion reference nature infraction intended endorsement justice stevens suggestion rules regarding student conduct nature trivial justify search based upon reasonable suspicion see post unwilling adopt standard legality search dependent upon judge evaluation relative importance various school rules maintenance discipline schools requires students restrained assaulting one another abusing drugs alcohol committing crimes also students conform standards conduct prescribed school authorities repeatedly emphasized need affirming comprehensive authority school officials consistent fundamental constitutional safeguards prescribe control conduct schools tinker des moines independent community school district promulgation rule forbidding specified conduct presumably reflects judgment part school officials conduct destructive school order proper educational environment absent suggestion rule violates substantive constitutional guarantee courts general matter defer judgment refrain attempting distinguish rules important preservation order schools rules course new jersey may insist demanding standard constitution statutes case courts purport applying fourth amendment invalidate search justice stevens interprets statements holding enforcement school smoking regulations sufficiently related goal maintaining discipline order school justify search standard adopted new jersey see post agree accurate characterization new jersey opinion new jersey hold school smoking rules unrelated goal maintaining discipline order suggest search produce evidence bearing directly accusation student violated smoking rules impermissible standard rather concluded evidence search purse likely produce sufficiently direct bearing infraction justify search conclusion agree reasons set forth infra justice stevens suggestion new jersey decision rested perceived triviality smoking infraction appears reflection views rather new jersey contends even reasonable choplick open purse look cigarettes reasonable reach take cigarettes purse found removed cigarettes purse asserts observed rolling papers suggested presence marihuana search marihuana taken place argument based fact cigarettes contraband school rule forbade thus according cigarettes subject seizure confiscation school authorities choplick entitled take purse regardless whether entitled peer purse see hairsplitting argumentation place inquiry addressed issue reasonableness choplick permissibly search purse cigarettes hardly seems reasonable suggest natural reaction finding picking constitutional violation find neither opening purse reaching remove cigarettes choplick violate fourth amendment justice powell justice joins concurring agree decision generally opinion place greater emphasis however special characteristics elementary secondary schools make unnecessary afford students constitutional protections granted adults juveniles nonschool setting realistic sense students within school environment lesser expectation privacy members population generally spend school hours close association classroom recreation periods students particular class often know teachers quite well necessity teachers degree familiarity authority students unparalleled except perhaps relationship parent child simply unrealistic think students subjective expectation privacy population generally purposes deciding case assume children school less adults privacy interests society prepared recognize legitimate however one may characterize privacy expectations students properly afforded constitutional protections often quoted statement said students shed constitutional rights schoolhouse gate tinker des moines independent community school district also emphasized need affirming comprehensive authority school officials prescribe control conduct schools see also epperson arkansas balanced interests student school officials need maintain discipline recognizing qualitative differences constitutional remedies students adults entitled goss lopez recognized constitutional right due process yet careful limit exercise right student challenged disciplinary suspension process found due notice hearing described rudimentary amounted disciplinarian informally discuss ing alleged misconduct student minutes occurred ingraham wright declined extend eighth amendment prohibit use corporal punishment schoolchildren authorized florida law emphasized opinion familiar constraints school also community provide substantial protection violation constitutional rights school authorities end school day child invariably free return home even school child brings support family friends rarely apart teachers pupils may witness protest instances mistreatment ingraham pointed openness public school supervision community afford significant safeguards violation constitutional rights ibid special relationship teacher student also distinguishes setting within schoolchildren operate law enforcement officers function adversaries criminal suspects officers responsibility investigate criminal activity locate arrest violate laws facilitate charging bringing persons trial rarely type adversarial relationship exist school authorities pupils instead commonality interests teachers pupils attitude typical teacher one personal responsibility student welfare well education primary duty school officials teachers education training young people state compelling interest assuring schools meet responsibility without first establishing discipline maintaining order teachers begin educate students apart education school obligation protect pupils mistreatment children also protect teachers violence students whose conduct recent years prompted national concern unreasonable odds history argue full panoply constitutional rules applies force effect schoolhouse enforcement criminal laws sum although join opinion holding emphasis somewhat different unlike police officers school authorities law enforcement responsibility indeed obligation familiar criminal laws course illustrated case school authorities layman familiarity types crimes occur frequently schools distribution use drugs theft even violence teachers well fellow students noted decisions never held contrary law recognizes host distinctions rights duties children adults see goss lopez powell dissenting holding reasonable grounds suspecting search turn evidence student violated violating either law rules school search student person belongings justified ante accord summary views majority state federal courts addressed issue see ante justice blackmun concurring judgment join judgment agree much said opinion write separately however believe omits crucial step analysis whether school search must based upon probable cause correctly recognized limited exceptions requirement careful balancing governmental private interests suggests public interest best served lesser standard ante believe used balancing test rather strictly applying fourth amendment warrant clause confronted special law enforcement need greater flexibility florida royer blackmun dissenting pointed place fourth amendment speaks terms freedom unreasonable searches amendment leave reasonableness searches judgment courts government officers framers amendment balanced interests involved decided search reasonable supported judicial warrant based probable cause see texas brown powell concurring rabinowitz frankfurter dissenting opinion concurring judgment thus example determining police conduct limited stop frisk upon less probable cause relied upon fact practical matter stop frisk subjected warrant requirement law enforcement officer must able take immediate steps assure person stopped question armed weapon used terry ohio similarly holding roving border patrol may stop car briefly question occupants upon less probable cause based part upon absence practical alternatives policing border see also michigan long camara municipal implication balancing test rule rather exception troubling unnecessary case elementary secondary school setting presents special need flexibility justifying departure balance struck framers justice powell notes ithout first establishing discipline maintaining order teachers begin educate students ante maintaining order classroom difficult task single teacher often must watch large number students parent knows children certain ages inclined test outer boundaries acceptable conduct imitate misbehavior peer misbehavior dealt quickly every adult remembers schooldays havoc water pistol peashooter wreak taken away thus recognized vents calling discipline frequent occurrences sometimes require immediate effective action goss lopez indeed drug use possession weapons become increasingly common among young people immediate response frequently required maintain environment conducive learning protect safety students school personnel immediate action obviously possible teacher required secure warrant searching student possible teacher conduct necessary search teacher thought probable cause search teacher neither training experience complexities probable cause law enforcement officer possesses make quick judgment existence probable cause time required teacher ask questions make observations necessary turn reasonable grounds probable cause time teacher students diverted essential task education teacher focus teaching helping students rather developing evidence particular troublemaker education perhaps important function government brown board education government heightened obligation safeguard students compels attend school special need immediate response behavior threatens either safety schoolchildren teachers educational process justifies excepting school searches warrant requirement applying standard determined balancing relevant interests agree standard announced application standard facts case therefore concur judgment justice brennan justice marshall joins concurring part dissenting part fully agree part ii opinion teachers like government officials must conform conduct fourth amendment protections personal privacy personal security justice stevens points post principle particular importance applied schoolteachers children learn much example exposition incongruous futile charge teachers task embuing students understanding system constitutional democracy time immunizing teachers need respect constitutional protections see board education pico plurality opinion west virginia state board education barnette however otherwise join opinion today decision sanctions school officials conduct fullscale searches reasonableness standard whose definite content test probable cause standard found text fourth amendment adopting unclear unprecedented unnecessary departure generally applicable fourth amendment standards carves broad exception standards developed years considering fourth amendment problems decision supported neither precedent even fair application balancing test proclaims opinion three basic principles underly fourth amendment jurisprudence first warrantless searches per se unreasonable subject specifically delineated exceptions see katz accord welsh wisconsin place steagald mincey arizona terry ohio johnson second searches whether conducted accordance warrant requirement pursuant one exceptions reasonable fourth amendment terms showing probable cause believe crime committed evidence crime found place searched beck ohio wong sun brinegar third categories intrusions substantially less intrusive searches seizures may justifiable accordance balancing test even absent warrant probable cause provided balancing test used gives sufficient weight privacy interests infringed dunaway new york terry ohio supra assistant vice principal choplick thorough excavation purse undoubtedly serious intrusion privacy unlike searches terry ohio supra adams williams search issue encompassed detailed minute examination respondent pocketbook contents private papers letters thoroughly scrutinized wisely neither petitioner today attempts justify search pocketbook minimally intrusive search terry line faithful settled doctrine inquiry therefore must focus warrant requirements agree schoolteachers principals acting agents law enforcement authorities generally may conduct search students belongings without first obtaining warrant agree point say school searches may justifiably held extent constitute exception fourth amendment warrant requirement exception however justified apparently holds assessing net social value application unguided balancing test individual legitimate expectations privacy personal security weighed government need effective methods deal breaches public order ante warrant clause something exhortation maximize social welfare see fit requires authorities must obtain warrant conducting search undifferentiated governmental interest law enforcement insufficient justify exception warrant requirement rather special governmental interest beyond need merely apprehend lawbreakers necessary justify categorical exception warrant requirement part special governmental needs sufficient override warrant requirement flow exigency press time makes obtaining warrant either impossible hopelessly infeasible see place supra mincey arizona supra johnson supra finding extraordinary governmental interest kind engage balancing test determine warrant nonetheless required require showing extraordinary governmental interest dispensing warrant requirement undervalue society need apprehend violators criminal law sure forcing law enforcement personnel obtain warrant engaging search predictably deter police conducting searches otherwise like conduct unintended result fourth amendment protection privacy rather purpose amendment thought necessary governmental interests stake exceed implicated ordinary law enforcement context extraordinary governmental interest involved legitimate engage balancing test determine whether warrant indeed necessary case extraordinary governmental interests exist sufficient justify exception warrant requirement students necessarily confined schoolday close proximity school staff agree take judicial notice serious problems drugs violence plague schools justice blackmun notes teachers must merely maintain environment conducive learning among children inclined test outer boundaries acceptable conduct must also protect safety students school personnel ante teacher principal neither carry essential teaching functions adequately protect students safety required wait warrant conducting necessary search emphatically disagree decision cast aside constitutional standard assessing constitutional validity schoolhouse search decision jettisons standard standard finds support text fourth amendment basis balancing test use balancing test determine standard evaluating validity search represents sizable innovation fourth amendment analysis innovation finds support neither precedent policy portends dangerous weakening purpose fourth amendment protect privacy security citizens moreover even historic understanding fourth amendment mistaken balancing test kind appropriate test gave adequate weight privacy security interests protected fourth amendment reach preordained result conclusory analysis reaches today therefore believe balancing test used today flawed inception execution respectfully dissent unbroken line cases held probable cause prerequisite search carroll held reason authority true rule search seizure made upon probable cause search seizure valid past decisions probable cause exists facts circumstances within officials knowledge reasonably trustworthy information sufficient warrant man reasonable caution belief criminal offense occurred evidence found suspected place constitutional minimum justifying search regardless whether conducted pursuant warrant carroll within one exceptions warrant requirement henry carroll merely relaxed requirements warrant grounds practicality dispense need probable cause accord chambers maroney enforcing fourth amendment prohibition unreasonable searches seizures insisted upon probable cause minimum requirement reasonable search permitted constitution holdings probable cause prerequisite search based relationship two clauses fourth amendment first clause right people secure persons houses papers effects unreasonable searches seizures shall violated purpose amendment coverage second clause warrants shall issue upon probable cause gives content word unreasonable first clause narrowly defined intrusions requisite balancing performed centuries precedent embodied principle seizures reasonable supported probable cause dunaway new york therefore fully agree underlying command fourth amendment always searches seizures reasonable ante underlying command directly interpreted category cases amorphous balancing test rather provisions warrant clause warrant probable cause provide yardstick official searches seizures measured fourth amendment neither requires authorizes conceptual ensues unguided balancing test used assess specific categories searches search question minimally intrusive terry stop constitutional standard determines validity sure recognizes probable cause ordinarily required justify search existence probable cause bears validity search ante yet fails cite case intrusion upon privacy interests justified less probable cause line cases begun terry ohio provides support applied balancing test context minimally intrusive searches served crucial law enforcement interests search terry instance limited search outer clothing type border stop issue usually consume minute explicitly noted detention must based consent probable cause see also hensley ante momentary stop place brief detention luggage canine sniff pennsylvania mimms per curiam brief frisk stop traffic violation characterizing intrusion minimal adams williams stop frisk short cases involved seizures substantially less intrusive arrests general rule requiring probable cause make fourth amendment seizures reasonable replaced balancing test dunaway supra administrative search cases provide comfort camara municipal held standard governed even administrative searches although camara recognized standards may somewhat modified take account special nature administrative searches noting housing code inspections neither personal nature aimed discovery evidence crime involve relatively limited invasion urban citizen privacy subsequent administrative search cases similarly recognized searches intrude upon areas whose owners harbor significantly decreased expectation privacy see donovan dewey thus circumscribing injury fourth amendment interests caused search considerations deepest significance freedom citizens counsel strict adherence principle search may conducted official possession probable cause official know facts circumstances warrant prudent man believing offense committed henry see also discussing history standard fourth amendment designed merely protect official intrusions whose social utility less measured balancing test intrusion individual privacy designed addition grant individual zone privacy whose protections breached reasonable requirements standard met moved whatever momentary evil aroused fears officials perhaps even supported majority citizens may tempted conduct searches sacrifice liberty citizen assuage perceived evil fourth amendment rests principle true balance individual society depends recognition right let alone comprehensive rights right valued civilized men olmstead brandeis dissenting right protects privacy security individual unless authorities cross specific threshold need designated term probable cause agree assertions today balancing test replace constitutional threshold one convenient enforcing laws less protective citizens liberty fourth amendment protections defaced balancing process overwhelms individual protection unwarranted official intrusion governmental interest said justify search seizure supra brennan dissenting thus accept majority premise hold fourth amendment applies searches conducted school authorities begin inquiry standards governing searches ante finding fourth amendment applies coupled observation issue search end inquiry even believed balancing test appropriately replaces judgment framers fourth amendment nonetheless object cursory shortsighted test employs justify predictable weakening fourth amendment protections particular test employed vastly overstates social costs standard entails though plausibly articulates serious privacy interests stake inexplicably fails accord adequate weight striking balance begins articulate balancing test observing government need effective methods deal breaches public order weighed one side balance ibid course correct government need effective enforcement methods weigh balance ordinary fourth amendment standards including probable cause may well permit methods maintaining public order perfectly effective case governmental interest effective standards carry weight justification departing standard rather costs applying probable cause opposed applying lesser standard weighed government side order tote costs applying standard thus necessary first take account nature content standard likelihood hamper achievement goal vital teachers administrators see ante maintaining effective educational setting public schools seminal statement concerning nature standard found carroll carroll held law enforcement authorities probable cause search facts circumstances within knowledge reasonably trustworthy information sufficient warrant man reasonable caution belief criminal offense occurred brinegar amplified requirement holding probable cause depends upon factual practical considerations everyday life reasonable prudent men legal technicians act two terms ago illinois gates expounded length view standard among adjectives used describe standard practical fluid flexible easily applied nontechnical see standard seen test whose application depended evaluation totality circumstances ignoring gates took great pains emphasize today holds new reasonableness standard appropriate spare teachers school administrators necessity schooling niceties probable cause permit regulate conduct according dictates reason common sense ante never thought understanding probable cause defied either reason common sense gates thought doubt nontechnical practical easily applied concept eminently serviceable context like school teachers require flexibility respond quickly decisively emergencies consideration likely operation standard reinforces conclusion discussing issue school searches professor lafave noted cases reached appellate courts strongly suggest instances evidence wrongdoing prompting teachers principals conduct searches sufficiently detailed specific meet traditional probable cause test lafave search seizure pp problems caused difficulty interpreting standard largely involved informants see illinois gates supra spinelli aguilar texas draper however three factors make likely problems involving informants make difficult teachers school administrators make decisions decision gates applying totality circumstances test determine whether informant tip constitute probable cause renders test easy teachers apply fact students teachers interact daily school building makes likely teachers get know students supply information problem informants remain anonymous even teachers therefore unavailable verification questioning unlikely arise finally teachers observe behavior students suspicion corroborate doubtful tips receive compared relative ease teachers apply standard amorphous reasonableness circumstances standard freshly coined today likely spawn increased litigation greater uncertainty among teachers administrators course know essential purpose developing articulating legal norms enable individuals conform conduct norms school system conscientiously attempting obey fourth amendment dictates standard example consult decisions legal materials prepare booklet expounding rough outlines concept booklet distributed teachers provide guidance search may lawfully conducted believe school system faced interpreting permitted new reasonableness standard hopelessly adrift search may permissible sad result uncertainty may well teachers reluctant conduct searches fully permissible even necessary constitutional standard others may intrude arbitrarily unjustifiably privacy students one point taken account considering desirability replacing constitutional standard question facing whether standard replaced test reasonableness circumstances rather whether traditional fourth amendment standards recede new standard thus although today paints broad brush holds undefined reasonableness standard applicable school searches approach question considerably reserve think necessary develop single standard govern school searches traditional fourth amendment law applies even standard searches seizures instance police officers may conduct brief stop frisk something less probable cause teachers permitted flexibility teacher administrator reasonable suspicion student carrying gun doubt authority ordinary fourth amendment doctrine conduct limited search student determine whether threat genuine costs applying traditional standard must therefore discounted fact additional flexibility necessary intrusion minor traditional fourth amendment jurisprudence displaces probable cause determines validity search legitimate balancing test whose function something substantial reaching predetermined conclusion acceptable impressions authority teachers need therefore reach rather different result reached today one side balance costs applying traditional fourth amendment standards practical flexible standard intrusion sought lesser standard situations intrusion much less severe need greater authority compelling whatever costs toted side discounted costs applying unprecedented reasonableness circumstances test leave teachers administrators uncertain authority encourage excessive litigation side balance serious privacy interests student interests admirably articulates opinion ante new ambiguous standard places serious jeopardy doubt fair assessment two sides balance necessarily reach conclusion argued fourth amendment language compels school searches like conducted case valid supported probable cause ii applying constitutional standard facts case find choplick search violated fourth amendment rights escorting private office choplick demanded see purse opened purse find evidence whether smoking bathroom opened purse discovered pack cigarettes point search evidence smoking violation complete choplick noticed cigarettes pack cigarette rolling papers believing papers associated see ante use marihuana proceeded conduct detailed examination contents purse found marihuana pipe money index card private letters indicating sold marihuana students state sought introduce latter material evidence criminal proceeding issue whether suppressed view case need decide whether initial search conducted choplick search evidence smoking violation completed choplick found pack cigarettes valid choplick point probable cause continue rummage purse choplick suspicion marihuana possession time based solely presence package cigarette papers mere presence without staple item commerce insufficient warrant person reasonable caution inferring violated law possessing marihuana evidence violation found purse police officer obtain warrant search home based solely claim seen package cigarette papers home choplick entitled search possibly private possessions based mere presence package cigarette papers therefore fruits illegal search must excluded judgment new jersey affirmed iii past several terms produced succession fourth amendment opinions balancing tests applied resolve various questions concerning proper scope official searches begun apply balancing test determine whether particular category searches intrudes upon expectations privacy merit fourth amendment protection see hudson palmer determining whether expectation privacy legitimate reasonable necessarily entails balancing interests applies balancing test determine whether warrant necessary conduct search see ante today opinion employs balancing test determine standard govern constitutionality given category searches see ante search turn unreasonable application balancing tests applies additional balancing test decide whether evidence resulting search must excluded see leon balancing tests amount brief nods direction neutral utilitarian calculus fact engages unanalyzed exercise judicial perhaps doctrinally destructive nihilism merely convenient umbrella majority agree genuine rationale conceal differences compare ante white delivering opinion ante powell joined concurring ante blackmun concurring judgment may real force underlying today decision belief purports reject belief unique role served schools justifies exception fourth amendment behalf methodology today decision may turn little influence future cases result departure traditional fourth amendment doctrine confined schools view presence word unreasonable text fourth amendment grant shifting majority authority answer fourth amendment questions consulting momentary vision social good searches unaccompanied probable cause violate fourth amendment pretend traditional fourth amendment doctrine automatically answers difficult legal questions occasionally arise contend however obligation provide coherent framework resolve questions basis conclusory recitation results balancing test fourth amendment supplies framework today fails heed message must respectfully dissent purse typically contains items highly personal nature especially shy sensitive adolescents prove extremely embarrassing teacher principal rummage contents include notes friends fragments love poems caricatures school authorities items personal hygiene administrative search cases involving inspection schemes recognized inspection effective serve credible deterrent unannounced even frequent inspections essential context prerequisite warrant easily frustrate inspection biswell accord donovan dewey cf marshall barlow holding warrant nonetheless necessary administrative search contexts fact despite somewhat diminished expectation privacy recognized automobile context see south dakota opperman required probable cause even justify warrantless automobile search see ortiz search even automobile substantial invasion privacy protect privacy official arbitrariness always regarded probable cause minimum requirement lawful search omitted chambers maroney justice stewart said coolidge new hampshire times unrest whether caused crime racial conflict fear internal subversion basic law values represents may appear unrealistic extravagant values authors fundamental constitutional concepts speak government side terminology used view terminology seriously misleading government charged protecting privacy security citizen charged apprehending violate criminal law consequently government legitimate interest conducting search unduly intrudes privacy security citizen balance rights government rights citizen opposing conceptions constitutionally legitimate means carrying government varied responsibilities noted professor lafave reached conclusion decision gates made clear flexibility concept comparison language standard reasonableness circumstances traditional language probable cause facts sufficient warrant person reasonable caution believing crime committed evidence found designated place suggests new standard may turn probable cause new guise additional uncertainty caused innovation surely unjustifiable naive expect addition extra dose uncertainty anything burden efforts school authorities maintain order schools ante hand new standard permits searches students instances probable cause absent instances according consistent formulations person reasonable caution think likely violation existed evidence violation found new standard genuinely objectionable impossible square premise citizens right free arbitrary intrusions privacy justice stevens justice marshall joins justice brennan joins part concurring part dissenting part assistant vice principal choplick searched purse evidence smoking girls restroom suspected misconduct illegal pose serious threat school discipline new jersey held choplick search purse unreasonable invasion privacy evidence seized used criminal proceedings new jersey holding careful response case required decide state new jersey sought review first arguing exclusionary rule wholly inapplicable searches conducted school officials contending fourth amendment provides protection student privacy accepted neither frontal assaults fourth amendment however seized upon smoking case announce proper standard govern searches school officials confronted disciplinary problems far severe smoking restroom although join part ii opinion continue believe unnecessarily inappropriately reached decide constitutional question see stevens dissenting reargument order importantly fear concerns motivated activism produced holding permit school administrators search students suspected violating trivial school regulations guidelines behavior question decides today whether choplick search purse violated fourth amendment raised state petition writ certiorari petition raised one question whether fourth amendment exclusionary rule applies searches made public school officials teachers school state quite properly declined submit former question wish present might appear solely factual dispute since twice threshold question argued believe expressly consider merits new jersey ruling exclusionary rule applies new jersey holding question plainly correct state noted case involve use evidence school disciplinary proceeding juvenile proceedings brought involved charge criminal offense committed adult accordingly exclusionary rule issue decided later presented concerned use criminal proceeding evidence obtained search conducted public school administrator confined issue law enforcement context new jersey reasoned cases made quite clear exclusionary rule equally applicable whether public official illegally obtained evidence municipal inspector see seattle camara municipal firefighter michigan tyler school administrator law enforcement official correctly concluded official search violates constitutional rights evidence admissible criminal proceedings defendant criminal proceeding alleges victim illegal search school administrator application exclusionary rule simple corollary principle evidence obtained searches seizures violation constitution authority inadmissible state mapp ohio practical basis principle part deterrent effect see general matter tolerably clear existence exclusionary remedy deter authorities violating fourth amendment sharply reducing incentive case evidence obtained school searches overall educative effect exclusionary rule adds important symbolic force utilitarian judgment justice brandeis great student great teacher wrote government potent omnipresent teacher good ill teaches whole people example crime contagious government becomes lawbreaker breeds contempt law invites every man become law unto invites anarchy olmstead dissenting opinion schools places inculcate values essential meaningful exercise rights responsibilities citizenry nation students convicted use arbitrary methods destructive personal liberty help feel dealt unfairly application exclusionary rule criminal proceedings arising illegal school searches makes important statement young people society attaches serious consequences violation constitutional rights principle liberty justice thus simple correct answer question presented state petition certiorari required affirmance state judgment suppressing evidence result dramatically character grants prosecutors relief suppression orders distressing regularity also prone rely grounds advanced parties order protect evidence exclusion characteristic disregard doctrine judicial restraint avoided result case ordering reargument directing parties address constitutional question parties good reason asked decide judicial activism undermines power perform central mission legitimate way dissented reargument order see modified views expressed dissent since majority brought question us shall explain believe misapplied standard reasonableness embodied fourth amendment ii search young woman purse school administrator serious invasion legitimate expectations privacy purse common repository one personal effects therefore inevitably associated expectation privacy arkansas sanders although expectations must sometimes yield legitimate requirements government assessing constitutionality warrantless search decision must guided language fourth amendment right people secure persons houses papers effects unreasonable searches seizures shall violated order evaluate reasonableness searches necessary first focus upon governmental interest allegedly justifies official intrusion upon constitutionally protected interests private citizen ready test determining reasonableness balancing need search size invasion search seizure entails terry ohio quoting camara municipal limited search weapons terry justified immediate interest police officer taking steps assure person dealing armed weapon unexpectedly fatally used viewed institutional perspective substantial need teachers administrators freedom maintain order schools ante majority opinion less acute violent unlawful seriously disruptive conduct fundamentally inconsistent principal function teaching institutions educate young people prepare citizenship conduct occurs amidst sizable group impressionable young people creates explosive atmosphere requires prompt effective response thus warrantless searches students school administrators reasonable undertaken purposes majority statement standard evaluating reasonableness searches suitably adapted end majority holds search student teacher school official justified inception reasonable grounds suspecting search turn evidence student violated violating either law rules school ante standard permit teachers school administrators search students suspect search reveal evidence even trivial school regulation precatory guideline student behavior standard deciding whether search justified inception treats violations rules school though fungible search curlers sunglasses order enforce school dress code apparently important search evidence heroin addiction violent gang activity majority however contend school administrators compelling need search students order achieve optimum enforcement minor school regulations contrary minor violations involved every indication informal school disciplinary process minimum requirements due process function effectively without power search enough evidence prove criminal case arguing teachers school administrators need power search students based lessened standard amicus curiae relies heavily empirical evidence contemporary crisis violence unlawful behavior seriously undermining process education american schools standard better attuned concern permit teachers school administrators search student reason believe search uncover evidence student violating law engaging conduct seriously disruptive school order educational process standard properly directed sole justification warrantless search addition standard varies extent permissible intrusion gravity suspected offense also consistent experience precedent criminal law traditionally recognized distinction essentially regulatory offenses serious violations peace graduated response criminal justice system depending character violation application similar distinction evaluating reasonableness warrantless searches seizures novel idea welsh wisconsin welsh police officers arrived scene traffic accident obtained information indicating driver automobile involved guilty first offense driving intoxicated civil violation maximum fine driver left scene accident officers followed suspect home arrested without warrant absent exigent circumstances warrantless invasion home clear violation payton new york holding warrantless arrest noncriminal traffic offense welsh unconstitutional noted application exception context home entry rarely sanctioned probable cause believe minor offense committed logic distinguishing minor serious offenses evaluating reasonableness school searches almost clear argument order justify serious intrusion persons privacy young people new jersey asks approve state must identify real immediate serious consequences mcdonald jackson concurring joined frankfurter school administrators entirely legitimate reasons adopting school regulations guidelines student behavior authorization searches enforce displays shocking lack sense proportion majority offers weak deference principles balance decency announcing school searches reasonable scope measures adopted reasonably related objectives search excessively intrusive light age sex student nature infraction ante emphasis added majority offers explanation standard necessary evaluate reasonableness ordinary school search significantly balance opinion pretermits discussion nature infraction smoking rule rider standard evaluating reasonableness initial intrusion apparently perception standard overly generous achieve fair balance administrator right search student reasonable expectations privacy standard evaluating scope reasonable school searches obviously designed prohibit physically intrusive searches students persons opposite sex relatively minor offenses effort establish standard clear enough allow searches upheld nearly every case flexible enough prohibit obviously unreasonable intrusions young adults privacy creates uncertainty extent resolve prohibit latter moreover majority application standard case permit male administrator rummage purse female high school student order obtain evidence smoking bathroom raises grave doubts mind whether effort effective unlike believe nature suspected infraction matter first importance deciding whether invasion privacy permissible iii embraces standard applied new jersey equivalent deprecates state application standard reflecting somewhat crabbed notion reasonableness ante mystery however state finding search case unconstitutional decision based manipulation reasonable suspicion trivial character activity promoted official search new jersey wrote satisfied school official reasonable grounds believe student possesses evidence illegal activity activity interfere school discipline order school official right conduct reasonable search evidence determining whether school official reasonable grounds courts consider child age history school record prevalence seriousness problem school search directed exigency make search without delay probative value reliability information used justification search view state quite obvious material difference search evidence relating violent disruptive activity search evidence smoking rule violation distinction imply rule matter minor importance rather like rule prohibits student tardy occasional violation context poses threat disrupting school order discipline offers reason believe immediate search necessary avoid unlawful conduct violence serious impairment educational process correct understanding new jersey standard explains concluded case assistant principal reasonable grounds believe student concealing purse evidence criminal activity evidence activity seriously interfere school discipline order importance nature rule infraction new jersey holding evident brief explanation principal basis decision student expectation privacy contents purse mere possession cigarettes violate school rule policy since school allowed smoking designated areas contents handbag direct bearing infraction assistant principal desire legal gather evidence impeach student credibility hearing disciplinary infraction validate search case choplick overreacted appeared nothing minor infraction rule prohibiting smoking bathroom freshmen sophomores building course true actually found evidence serious wrongdoing one claims prior search may justified unexpected discovery far smoking infraction concerned search cigarettes merely tended corroborate teacher eyewitness account violation minor regulation designed channel student smoking behavior designated locations conduct neither unlawful significantly disruptive school order educational process invasion privacy associated forcible opening purse entirely unjustified inception review sampling school search cases relied demonstrates different case indeed valid justification intruding student privacy student suspected criminal violation remainder either violence substantial disruption school order integrity academic process stake involved matters trivial rule violated rule adopts today may make fourth amendment virtually meaningless school context although agree school administrators must broad latitude maintain order discipline classrooms authority unlimited iv schoolroom first opportunity citizens experience power government passes every citizen public official schoolteachers policemen prison guards values learn take life one cherished ideals one contained fourth amendment government may intrude personal privacy citizens without warrant compelling circumstance decision today curious moral nation youth although search purse trouble today majority submit dealing matters relatively trivial welfare nation village tyrants well village hampdens none acts color law beyond reach constitution west virginia state board education barnette respectfully dissent pet cert supplemental brief petitioner state ex rel nn nn see stone powell janis calandra alderman stone powell see board education pico brennan joined marshall stevens jj blackmun concurring part concurring judgment plyler doe ambach norwick tinker des moines independent community school brown board education west virginia state board education barnette cf gault justice brennan written analogous case know class petitioner attending police dogs burst lesson school authorities taught day undoubtedly make greater impression one teacher hoped convey grant certiorari teach petitioner another lesson fourth amendment protects right people secure persons houses papers effects unreasonable searches seizures schools expect students learn lessons good citizenship school authorities disregard fundamental principles underpinning constitutional freedoms doe renfrow dissenting denial certiorari stone powell pledge allegiance flag brief review fourth amendment cases involving criminal prosecutions since october term supports proposition compare florida rodriguez ante per curiam leon massachusetts sheppard segura karo oliver jacobsen massachusetts upton per curiam florida meyers per curiam michigan long illinois andreas illinois lafayette illinois gates texas brown knotts illinois batchelder per curiam cardwell taylor per curiam thompson louisiana ante per curiam welsh wisconsin michigan clifford place florida royer karo see also segura opinion burger joined cf illinois gates stevens dissenting reargument order joined brennan marshall jj see also cf ante blackmun concurring judgment special need immediate response behavior threatens either safety schoolchildren teachers educational process justifies excepting school searches warrant requirement ante powell concurring joined without first establishing discipline maintaining order teachers begin educate students handbook piscataway record doc brief survey school rule books reveals majority approach teachers school administrators may also search students enforce school rules regulating secret societies ii students driving school iii parking use parking lots school hours iv smoking campus direction traffic hallways vi student presence hallways class hours without pass vii profanity viii school attendance interscholastic athletes day game meet match ix cafeteria use cleanup eating lunch xi unauthorized absence see student handbook south windsor fairfax county public schools student responsibilities rights student handbook chantilly cf camara municipal unanimous agreement among familiar field effective way seek universal compliance minimum standards required municipal codes routine periodic inspections structures probable cause standard adopted reasonable goals code enforcement dealt crushing blow see goss lopez sad truth many classrooms across country temples learning teaching lessons good civility wisdom central fabric american life contrary many schools state disorder educational atmosphere polluted safety students teachers imperiled brief amicus curiae see also brief national education association amicus curiae suspected violation rule threatens disrupt school threatens harm students school officials free search evidence terry ohio throughout criminal law dichotomy expressed classifying crimes misdemeanors felonies malum prohibitum malum se crimes involve moral turpitude major petty offenses see generally lafave handbook criminal law codes student behavior also provide system graduated response distinguishing violent unlawful seriously disruptive conduct conduct warrant serious sanctions student engages repetitive offenses see handbook piscataway record doc pp student handbook south windsor rules board education district columbia ch iv indeed piscataway high school violation smoking regulations student first offense result assignment three days school classes concerning hazards smoking record doc supra goss lopez emphasis added noted similar considerations require variance requirements due process school disciplinary context general rule notice hearing precede removal student school agree however recurring situations prior notice hearing insisted upon students whose presence poses continuing danger persons property ongoing threat disrupting academic process may immediately removed school cases necessary notice rudimentary hearing follow soon practicable mcdonald police officers made warrantless search office illegal numbers operation justice jackson rejected view search supported exigent circumstances even one conclude urgent circumstances might justify forced entry without warrant emergency present case whether reasonable necessity search without waiting obtain warrant certainly depends somewhat upon gravity offense thought progress well hazards method attempting reach defendant criminal operation shabby swindle police quite right suppressing one endangered life limb peace good order community policeman sees person smoking elevator violation city ordinance may conduct search evidence smoking violation unlikely event custodial arrest robinson gustafson florida doubtful whether search kind reasonable officer planned issue citation offender depart see robinson case majority offers rationale supporting conclusion student detained school officials questioning reasonable suspicion violated school rule entitled protection fourth amendment criminal suspect custodial arrest one thing clear standard shocking strip searches described cases place schoolhouse see doe renfrow require constitutional scholar conclude nude search child invasion constitutional rights magnitude cert denied bellnier lund supp ndny people state app extent deeply intrusive searches ever reasonable outside custodial context surely must prevent imminent serious harm quoting state mckinnon emphasis added emphasis added ibid added moreover reasonable grounds believe purse contained cigarettes object search one furnished information effect school official best good hunch doubt good hunches unearth much evidence crime persons students citizens whole required sustain search see handbook piscataway record doc see also tr mar hearing see tarter raybuck search marihuana board education community unit school dist supp sd drugs large amount money state alaska app stolen money cal app cal rptr marihuana cal app cal rptr amphetamine pills donaldson cal app cal rptr methedrine pills state baccino del super drugs state app drugs app marihuana people ward app drug pills mercer state tex civ app marihuana state mckinnon speed see app search knife razor blade state tex app student bloodshot eyes wandering halls violation school rule requiring students remain examination room home midterm examinations see state young three students searched made furtive gestures displayed obvious consciousness guilt cert denied doe state student searched pipe teacher saw using violate smoking regulations