nixon attorney general missouri et al shrink missouri government pac et argued october decided january respondents shrink missouri government pac political action committee zev david fredman candidate republican nomination missouri state auditor filed suit alleging missouri statute imposing limits ranging contributions candidates state office violated first fourteenth amendment rights shrink missouri gave fredman represented without statutory limitation contribute fredman alleged campaign effectively generous contributions statute allowed summary judgment district sustained statute applying buckley valeo per curiam found adequate support law proposition large contributions raise suspicions influence peddling tending undermine citizens confidence government integrity rejected respondents contention inflation since buckley approval federal restriction meant state limit statewide office constitutional today reversing eighth circuit found buckley articulated applied strict scrutiny standard review held missouri demonstrate compelling interest contribution limits issue narrowly drawn serve interest treating missouri claim compelling interest avoiding corruption perception corruption caused candidates acceptance large campaign contributions insufficient satisfy strict scrutiny required demonstrable evidence genuine problems resulted contributions amounts greater statutory limits ruled state evidence inadequate purpose held buckley authority comparable state limits contributions state political candidates limits need pegged precise dollar amounts approved buckley pp buckley held inter alia federal election campaign act provision placing annual ceiling independent expenditures linked specific candidates federal office infringed speech association guarantees first amendment equal protection clause fourteenth upheld provisions limiting contributions individuals single candidate per election addressing speech claim buckley explicitly rejected intermediate scrutiny communicative action see similar standard applicable merely time place manner restrictions see adderley florida instead referred generally exacting scrutiny required first amendment drew line expenditures contributions treating expenditure restrictions direct restraints speech saying effect limiting contributions left communication significantly unimpaired id flagged similar difference impacts expenditure contribution limits association rights id see also id later made distinction explicit federal election massachusetts citizens life thus buckley standard scrutiny contribution limit involving significant interference associational rights survive government demonstrated regulating contributions means closely drawn match sufficiently important interest though dollar amount limit need fine tun ed id buckley attempt parse distinctions speech associational standards scrutiny contribution limits made clear restrictions bore heavily associational rights speech rights thus proceeded understanding contribution limitation surviving claim associational abridgement survive speech challenge well found prevention corruption appearance corruption constitutionally sufficient justification contribution limits issue id pp defending statute missouri espouses interests preventing corruption appearance even without buckley serious question legitimacy interests underlie bribery antigratuity statutes rather respondents take state task failing justify invocation interests empirical evidence actually corrupt practices perception among missouri voters unrestricted contributions must exerting covertly corrosive influence state statute void however want evidence quantum empirical evidence needed satisfy heightened judicial scrutiny legislative judgments vary novelty plausibility justification raised buckley demonstrates dangers large corrupt contributions suspicion large contributions corrupt neither novel implausible see respondents wrong arguing supplemented buckley holding new requirement governments enacting contribution limits must demonstrate recited harms real merely conjectural contention respondents rely principally colorado republican federal campaign comm federal election never accepted mere conjecture adequate carry first amendment burden colorado republican deals government burden justify contribution limits limits independent expenditures political parties principal opinion expressly distinguished contribution limits id event case present close call requiring definition whatever state evidentiary obligation may although record show missouri legislature relied evidence findings accepted buckley evidence introduced respondents cited lower courts action prior case involving related ballot initiative enough show substantiation congressional concerns reflected buckley counterpart support missouri law moreover although majority votes defeat first amendment protections statewide vote adopting initiative attested public perception contribution limits necessary combat corruption appearance thereof extensive evidentiary documentation might necessary petitioners made showing cast doubt apparent implications buckley evidence record however nearest come challenging conclusions invocation academic studies contradicted studies pp support respondents various arguments missouri limitations different kind sustained buckley raise essentially new issue adequacy missouri statute tailoring serve purposes buckley supra indication limits dramatic adverse effect funding campaigns political associations thus showing limitations prevented candidates amassing resources necessary effective advocacy indeed district found since missouri limits became effective candidates state office able raise funds sufficient run effective campaigns candidates still able amass impressive campaign war chests plausibility conclusions buttressed petitioners evidence last election contributions became effective percent contributors candidates state auditor made contributions less even assuming contribution limits affected respondent fredman ability wage competitive campaign showing one affected individual point system suppressed political advocacy unconstitutional buckley district conclusions supporting evidence also suffice answer respondents variant claim missouri limits today differ kind buckley owing inflation since case decided respondents assumption buckley set minimum constitutional threshold contribution limits dollars adjusted loss purchasing power well lines drawn missouri fundamental misunderstanding case specifically rejected contention amount constitutional minimum instead asked whether contribution limitation low impede ability candidates amass resources necessary effective advocacy test issue subsequent cases truncated narrow question power dollar pp reversed remanded souter delivered opinion rehnquist stevens ginsburg breyer joined stevens filed concurring opinion breyer filed concurring opinion ginsburg joined kennedy filed dissenting opinion thomas filed dissenting opinion scalia joined jeremiah jay nixon attorney general missouri et al petitioners shrink missouri government pac et al writ certiorari appeals eighth circuit january justice souter delivered opinion principal issues case whether buckley valeo per curiam authority state limits contributions state political candidates whether federal limits approved buckley without adjustment inflation define scope permissible state limitations today hold buckley authority comparable state regulation need pegged buckley dollars legislature missouri enacted senate bill restrict permissible amounts contributions candidates state office mo rev stat statute became effective however missouri voters approved ballot initiative even stricter contribution limits effective immediately appeals eighth circuit held initiative contribution limits unconstitutional first amendment carver nixon cert denied upshot previously dormant statute took effect shrink missouri government pac adams amended statute imposes contribution limits ranging depending specified state office size constituency see mo rev stat cum supp particular provision challenged reads elect individual office governor lieutenant governor secretary state state treasurer state auditor attorney general amount contributions made accepted person candidate one election shall exceed one thousand dollars mo rev stat cum statutory dollar amounts baselines adjustment year made multiplying base year amount cumulative consumer price index rounded nearest amount years since january suit filed limits ranged high contributions candidates statewide office including state auditor office population exceeded contributions candidates state representative office fewer people represented app respondents shrink missouri government pac political action committee zev david fredman candidate republican nomination state auditor sought enjoin enforcement contribution statute violating first fourteenth amendment rights presumably free speech association equal protection although complaint state shrink missouri gave fredman candidate committee another shrink missouri represented without limitation contribute fredman campaign fredman alleged campaign effectively generous contributions allowed shrink missouri government pac adams supp ed mo summary judgment district sustained statute id applying buckley valeo supra found adequate support law proposition large contributions raise suspicions influence peddling tending undermine citizens confidence integrity government supp district rejected respondents contention inflation since buckley approval federal restriction meant state limit statewide office constitutional today id appeals eighth circuit nonetheless enjoined enforcement law pending appeal ultimately reversed district finding buckley articulated applied strict scrutiny standard review appeals held missouri bound demonstrate compelling interest contribution limits issue narrowly drawn serve interest id quoting carver nixon appeals treated missouri claim compelling interest avoiding corruption perception corruption brought candidates elective office accept large campaign contributions insufficient satisfy strict scrutiny relying circuit precedent see russell burris cert denied carver nixon supra appeals required demonstrable evidence genuine problems resulted contributions amounts greater limits place buckley noted perfidy uncovered federal campaign financing unwilling extrapolate examples missouri time corruption perception corruption large campaign contributions without evidence problems really exist citations omitted thought evidence presented state affidavit state legislature interim joint committee campaign finance reform statute passed inadequate raise genuine issue material fact state alleged interest limiting campaign contributions ibid given large number limit political contributions see generally federal election commission feigenbaum palmer campaign finance law granted certiorari review congruence eighth circuit decision buckley reverse ii matters raised buckley valeo per curiam included claims federal campaign finance legislation infringed speech association guarantees first amendment equal protection clause fourteenth federal election campaign act stat amended federal election campaign act amendments stat limited still limits contributions individuals single candidate federal office per election supp iv buckley valeo supra buckley struck law also placed annual ceiling independent expenditures linked specific candidates supp iv found violations first amendment expenditure regulations held contribution restrictions constitutional buckley valeo supra precision relative rigor standard review contribution limits pretense buckley per curiam opinion sure addressing speech claim explicitly rejected intermediate scrutiny communicative action see similar standard applicable merely time place manner restrictions see adderley florida cox louisiana kovacs cooper distinguishing tests discussion referred generally exacting scrutiny required first amendment buckley valeo added constitutional guarantee fullest urgent application precisely conduct campaigns political office id quoting monitor patriot roy however drew line expenditures contributions treating expenditure restrictions direct restraints speech nonetheless suffered little direct effect contribution limits limitation upon amount one person group may contribute candidate political committee entails marginal restriction upon contributor ability engage free communication contribution serves general expression support candidate views communicate underlying basis support quantity communication contributor increase perceptibly size contribution since expression rests solely undifferentiated symbolic act contributing size contribution provides rough index intensity contributor support candidate limitation amount money person may give candidate campaign organization thus involves little direct restraint political communication permits symbolic expression support evidenced contribution way infringe contributor freedom discuss candidates issues id omitted thus said effect limiting contributions left communication significantly unimpaired flagged similar difference expenditure contribution limitations impacts association right expenditure limit precludes associations effectively amplifying voice adherents id thus interfering freedom adherents well association ibid contribution limits leave contributor free become member political association assist personally association efforts behalf candidates ibid see also id say many words different standards might govern expenditure contribution limits affecting associational rights since said explicitly federal election massachusetts citizens life consistently held restrictions contributions require less compelling justification restrictions independent spending event plain ever since buckley contribution limits readily clear hurdles cf colorado republican federal campaign comm federal election opinion breyer noting campaign finance case law provisions found constitutional mostly imposed contribution limits emphasis original thus buckley standard scrutiny contribution limit involving significant interference associational rights internal quotation marks omitted survive government demonstrated contribution regulation closely drawn match sufficiently important interest ibid though dollar amount limit need fine tun ed id attempt parse distinctions speech association standards scrutiny contribution limits make clear restrictions bore heavily associational right freedom speak id consequently proceeded understanding contribution limitation surviving claim associational abridgment survive speech challenge well held standard satisfied contribution limits review prevention corruption appearance corruption found constitutionally sufficient justification id extent large contributions given secure political quid pro quo current potential office holders integrity system representative democracy undermined almost equal concern danger actual quid pro quo arrangements impact appearance corruption stemming public awareness opportunities abuse inherent regime large individual financial contributions congress legitimately conclude avoidance appearance improper influence also critical confidence system representative government eroded disastrous extent id quoting civil service letter carriers see also federal election national conservative political action corruption subversion political process elected officials influenced act contrary obligations office prospect financial gain infusions money campaigns federal election national right work noting government interests preventing corruption appearance corruption directly implicate integrity electoral process less responsibility individual citizen successful functioning quoting automobile workers first nat bank boston bellotti importance governmental interest preventing corruption never doubted speaking improper influence opportunities abuse addition quid pro quo arrangements recognized concern confined bribery public officials extending broader threat politicians compliant wishes large contributors obvious points behind recognition congress constitutionally address power money influence governmental action ways less blatant specific bribery buckley valeo defending statute missouri espouses interests preventing corruption appearance flows munificent campaign contributions even without authority buckley serious question legitimacy interests claimed underlie bribery statutes neither law morals equate political contributions without bribes spoke buckley perception corruption inherent regime large individual financial contributions candidates public office id source concern almost equal quid pro quo improbity ibid public interest countering perception indeed entire answer overbreadth claim raised buckley case id made perfect sense leave perception impropriety unanswered cynical assumption large donors call tune jeopardize willingness voters take part democratic governance democracy works people faith govern faith bound shattered high officials appointees engage activities arouse suspicions malfeasance corruption mississippi valley generating although respondents neither challenge legitimacy objectives call reconsideration buckley take state task appeals failing justify invocation interests empirical evidence actually corrupt practices perception among missouri voters unrestricted contributions must exerting covertly corrosive influence state statute void however want evidence quantum empirical evidence needed satisfy heightened judicial scrutiny legislative judgments vary novelty plausibility justification raised buckley demonstrates dangers large corrupt contributions suspicion large contributions corrupt neither novel implausible opinion noted deeply disturbing examples surfacing election demonstrate problem corruption illusory one although marshal evidence support congressional concern referred number abuses detailed appeals decision ibid described corporations interest groups rich individuals made large contributions illegal existing law others reached least verge bribery see buckley valeo nn cadc evidence appeals described public revelations parties question sufficient show voters tend identify big donation corrupt purpose buckley evidentiary showing exemplifies sufficient justification contribution limits speak may necessary minimum respondents wrong arguing years since buckley came supplemented holding new requirement governments enacting contribution limits must demonstrate recited harms real merely conjectural brief respondents shrink missouri government pac et al quoting treasury employees turn quoting turner broadcasting system fcc contention respondents rely principally colorado republican federal campaign comm federal election never accepted mere conjecture adequate carry first amendment burden colorado republican deal government burden justify limits contributions although principal opinion case charged government failure show real risk corruption id opinion breyer issue question limits independent expenditures political parties principal opinion expressly distinguished contribution limits limitations independent expenditures less directly related preventing corruption contributions id case constitutionally significant fact coordination candidate source expenditure kept principal opinion assuming absent convincing evidence contrary limitation expenditures necessary combat substantial danger corruption electoral system id colorado republican thus goes hand hand buckley toe toe event case present close call requiring definition whatever state evidentiary obligation may record show missouri legislature relied evidence findings accepted buckley evidence introduced record respondents cited lower courts action action regarding proposition enough show substantiation congressional concerns reflected buckley counterpart supporting missouri law although missouri preserve legislative history supp state presented affidavit state senator wayne goode state legislature interim joint committee campaign finance reform time state enacted contribution limits stated large contributions real potential buy votes ibid app district cited newspaper accounts large contributions supporting inferences impropriety supp one report questioned state treasurer decision use certain bank missouri banking business institution contributed treasurer campaign editorial central issue trust louis another made much receipt candidate state auditor contribution brewery one bank mannies auditor race may get noisy ignored louis carver nixon eighth circuit invalidating limits proposition imposed identified contribution candidates northern missouri political action committee linked investment bank three scandals including one state representative accused sponsoring legislation exchange kickbacks another missouri former attorney general pleaded guilty charges conspiracy misuse state property indicted using state workers compensation fund benefit campaign contributors although majority votes defeat first amendment protections statewide vote proposition certainly attested perception relied upon overwhelming percent voters missouri determined contribution limits necessary combat corruption appearance thereof carver nixon supp wd mo rev see also supp might course need extensive evidentiary documentation petitioners made showing cast doubt apparent implications buckley evidence record closest respondents come challenging conclusions invocation academic studies said indicate large contributions public officials candidates actually result changes candidates positions brief respondents shrink missouri government pac et al smith money talks speech corruption equality campaign finance geo smith faulty assumptions undemocratic consequences campaign finance reform yale studies however point way reply brief respondent bray sorauf inside campaign finance hall wayman buying time moneyed interests mobilization bias congressional committees pol sci rev magleby nelson money chase given conflict among publications absence reason think public perception influenced studies cited respondents little reason doubt sometimes large contributions work actual corruption political system reason question existence corresponding suspicion among voters see support respondents various arguments spite striking resemblance limitations sustained buckley missouri different kind raise essentially new issue adequacy missouri statute tailoring serve purposes buckley indication contribution limitations imposed law dramatic ally adverse effect funding campaigns political associations thus showing limitations prevented candidates political committees amassing resources necessary effective advocacy district found period since missouri limits became effective candidates state elected office quite able raise funds sufficient run effective campaigns supp candidates political office state still able amass impressive campaign war chests plausibility conclusions buttressed petitioners evidence missouri elections relevant state limitations went effect percent contributors candidates state auditor made contributions less supp app even assume contribution limits affected respondent fredman ability wage competitive campaign small assumption given fredman identified one contributor shrink missouri given per election showing one affected individual point system suppressed political advocacy unconstitutional buckley conclusions district supporting evidence also suffice answer respondents variant claim missouri limits today differ kind buckley owing inflation since respondents seem assume buckley set minimum constitutional threshold contribution limits dollars adjusted loss purchasing power well lines drawn missouri assumption fundamental misunderstanding held buckley specifically rejected contention amount constitutional minimum legislatures regulate indicated referred instead outer limits contribution regulation asking whether showing limits low impede ability candidates amas resources necessary effective advocacy asked words whether contribution limitation radical effect render political association ineffective drive sound candidate voice level notice render contributions pointless test issue later cases truncated narrow question power dollar must go power mount campaign dollars likely forthcoming judge gibson put dictates first amendment mere functions consumer price index dissenting opinion dissenters case think reasoning evades real issue justice thomas chides us hiding behind buckley post justice kennedy faults us seeing case routine application analysis buckley instead facing describes consequences buckley post dissenter overrule buckley thinks answer supposed decide case shrink fredman request buckley overruled furthest reach arguments law subsequent decisions already books enhanced state burden justification beyond buckley required proposition rejected mistaken iii reason logic evidence doubt sufficiency buckley govern case support missouri statute judgment appeals accordingly reversed case remanded proceedings consistent opinion ordered jeremiah jay nixon attorney general missouri et al petitioners shrink missouri government pac et al writ certiorari appeals eighth circuit january justice stevens concurring justice kennedy suggests misuse soft money tolerated misguided decision colorado republican federal campaign comm federal election demonstrates need fresh examination constitutional issues raised congress enactment federal election campaign acts resolution issues buckley valeo per curiam response call new beginning therefore make one simple point money property speech speech power inspire volunteers perform multitude tasks campaign trail battleground even football field money meanwhile power pay hired laborers perform tasks follow however first amendment provides measure protection use money accomplish goals provides use ideas achieve results constitution heritage properly protect individual interest making decisions use property governmental regulation decisions sometimes viewed either deprivations liberty deprivations property see moore east cleveland tevens concurring judgment telling grandmother may use property provide shelter grandchild hire mercenaries work grandchild campaign public office raises important constitutional concerns unrelated first amendment participate decision buckley opportunity suggest property liberty concerns adequately explain decision invalidate expenditure limitations act reliance first amendment justify invalidation campaign finance regulations functional equivalent candid reliance doctrine substantive due process articulated two prevailing opinions moore east cleveland right use one money hire gladiators fund speech proxy certainly merits significant constitutional protection property rights however entitled protection right say one pleases jeremiah jay nixon attorney general missouri et al petitioners shrink missouri government pac et al writ certiorari appeals eighth circuit january justice breyer justice ginsburg joins concurring dissenters accuse weakening first amendment believe failing adopt strict scrutiny standard balance away first amendment freedoms post opinion thomas principal dissent oversimplifies problem faced campaign finance context takes difficult constitutional problem turns lopsided dispute political expression government censorship cover fiction accompanying formula dissent make absolute arbiter difficult question best left main political branches write separately address critical question review kind problem explain believe choice correct dissent believes diminishes importance first amendment interests us wrong opinion question constitutional importance political speech protection lies heart first amendment question need particularly careful precise independent judicial review protection issue case constitutionally protected interests lie sides legal equation reason place strong presumption constitutionality sort often thought accompany words strict scrutiny expect mechanical application tests associated strict scrutiny tests compelling interests least restrictive means properly resolve difficult constitutional problem campaign finance statutes pose cf kovacs cooper frankfurter concurring objecting first amendment context oversimplified formulas see also eu san francisco county democratic central stevens concurring illinois bd elections socialist workers party blackmun concurring one hand decision contribute money campaign matter first amendment concern money speech enables speech contributions contributor associates candidate cause helps candidate communicate political message contributor agrees helps candidate win attracting votes similarly minded voters buckley valeo per curiam political association political communication stake hand restrictions upon amount one individual contribute particular candidate seek protect integrity electoral process means free society democratically translates political speech concrete governmental action see id burroughs upholding federal corrupt practices act emphasizing constitutional importance safeguarding electoral process see also burson freeman plurality opinion recognizing compelling interest preserving integrity electoral process moreover limiting size largest contributions restrictions aim democratize influence money may bring bear upon electoral process cf reynolds sims context apportionment constitution demands citizen equally effective voice seek build public confidence process broaden base candidate meaningful financial support encouraging public participation open discussion first amendment presupposes see mills alabama whitney california brandeis concurring meiklejohn free speech relation service objectives statute imposes restrictions degree deny contributor opportunity associate candidate contribution though limits contribution size prevent contributor using money alone others pay expression views ways instead permits supporters contribute amount money attempt make process fairer democratic circumstances presumption constitutionality place recognize buckley used language interpreted contrary said example rejected concept government may restrict speech elements society order enhance relative voice others words taken literally constitution often permits restrictions speech order prevent drowning many congress example constitutionally protected debate art limited provide every member equal opportunity express views elections constitution tolerates numerous restrictions ballot access limiting political rights make effective political rights entire electorate see storer brown regardless result buckley made clear statement automatically invalidate statute seeks fairer electoral debate contribution limits forbid take account competing constitutional interests mentioned circumstances law significantly implicates competing constitutionally protected interests complex ways closely scrutinized statute impact interests refrained employing simple test effectively presumes unconstitutionality rather balanced interests practice meant asking whether statute burdens one interest manner proportion statute salutary effects upon others perhaps necessarily existence clearly superior less restrictive alternative legislature significantly greater institutional expertise example field election regulation practice defers empirical legislative judgments least deference risk constitutional evils say permitting incumbents insulate effective electoral challenge approach taken fact buckley contributions found generally competing constitutional interests implicated privacy see frisby schultz balancing rights privacy expression rowan post office dept first amendment interests listeners viewers see turner broadcasting system fcc recognizing speech interests viewers cable operators columbia broadcasting system democratic national committee balancing various first amendment interests involved broadcast media task great delicacy difficulty red lion broadcasting fcc first amendment permits federal communications commission restrict speech enable speech others integrity electoral process see burson weighing first amendment rights electoral integrity necessary right vote anderson celebrezze storer brown supra must substantial regulation elections fair honest approach taken cases consistent constitutional courts facing similarly complex constitutional problems see bowman kingdom eur european human rights demanding proportionality campaign finance context libman quebec attorney general canada dissenters call approach sui generis post opinion thomas overstates case applying approach present case uphold statute essentially reasons stated agree legislature understands problem threat electoral integrity need democratization better defer political judgment unlimited spending threatens integrity electoral process defer respect whether solution imposing low contribution limit significantly increases advantages incumbency thereby insulates legislators effective electoral challenge statutory limit dollars low enough raise question given empirical information presented type election issue record adequate candidate financing fact statute indexes amount inflation agree statute work disproportionate harm limit may prevented plaintiff zev david fredman financing campaign office fredman support among potential contributors sufficiently widespread contribution statute like statute setting ballot eligibility requirements see jenness fortson narrow field conceivable challengers degree undue insulation practical matter inferred automatically fact limit makes ballot access difficult one previously unsuccessful candidate approach outlined consistent approach taken many complex first amendment cases see supra buckley decision well might interpreted embodying sufficient flexibility problem hand buckley holding seems leave political branches broad authority enact laws regulating contributions take form soft money held public financing laws constitutional says nothing one way important proposed reforms media time later cases presuppose federal election commission delegated authority interpret broad statutory provisions light campaign finance law basic purposes despite disagreements whether commission exercised authority particular case see colorado republican federal campaign comm federal election whether claimed independent expenditure coordinated expenditure accord id stevens dissenting alternatively might prove possible reinterpret aspects buckley light buckley experience stressed justice kennedy post dissenting opinion making less absolute line particularly respect independently wealthy candidates whose expenditures might considered contributions campaigns wrong buckley suppose buckley denies political branches sufficient leeway enact comprehensive solutions problems posed campaign finance like justice kennedy believe constitution require us reconsider buckley understanding join opinion jeremiah jay nixon attorney general missouri et al petitioners shrink missouri government pac et al writ certiorari appeals eighth circuit january justice kennedy dissenting decision lasting consequences political speech course elections speech upon democracy depends yet defining controlling standard review applying urgent claim presented seems almost indifferent analysis acceptable routine case single protester sign see city ladue gilleo demonstrators public sidewalk see grace driver taped motto license plate disagreed message see wooley maynard surely approach unacceptable case announcing rule suppresses one essential prevalent forms political speech answer say routine application analysis buckley valeo per curiam similar set facts cavalier dismissal petitioners claim appropriate justifications case system stare decisis must rest upon capacity responsibility acknowledge missteps duty face adverse unintended consequences flowing prior decisions respect submit accept obligation case us instead perpetuates compounds serious distortion first amendment resulting intervention buckley concerned voter suspicion role money politics amidst atmosphere skepticism however hardly inspires confidence abandon rigors traditional first amendment structure zev david fredman asks us evaluate speech claim context system favors candidates officeholders whose campaigns supported soft money usually funneled political parties pays heed plain fact compromise invented buckley set stage new kind speech enter political system covert speech forced substantial amount political speech underground contributors candidates devise ever elaborate methods avoiding contribution limits limits take account rising campaign costs preferred method conceal real purpose speech soft money may contributed political parties unlimited amounts see colorado republican federal campaign comm federal election used often fund issue advocacy advertisements promote attack candidate positions without specifically urging election defeat briffault issue advocacy redrawing line tex rev issue advocacy like soft money unrestricted see buckley supra straightforward speech form financial contributions paid candidate speech subject full disclosure prompt evaluation public thus decision given us covert speech mocks first amendment current system unfortunate suspect first amendment evolved deliberate legislative choice unhappy origins earlier decree buckley accepting half congress limiting contributions rejecting limiting expenditures created misshapen system one distorts meaning speech irony impose regime name free speech sufficient ground reject buckley wooden formula present case wrong goes deeper however operation buckley rule candidate oppose system effective way without selling first soft money must raised attack problem soft money effect immunizes erroneous ruling change rulings must never viewed caution provide immunity correction political process forum unrestrained speech melancholy history campaign finance buckley wake shows happen intervene dynamics speech expression inventing artificial scheme case one sense might seem unimportant appears fredman outsider candidate may much chance yet binding outdated limit per contribution system parties raise soft money without limitation powerful press faces restrictions use resources back preferred candidates tells fredman challenge status quo unless first gives first amendment familiar defend extension buckley present times course recites dangers corruption appearance corruption interested person contributes money candidate examine defend substitute encouraged covert speech funded unlimited soft money view system creates dangers greater one replaced first danger one already mentioned require contributors soft money beneficiaries mask real purpose second indirect system accountability confusing dispiriting voter disaffection distrust cites justification limits direct contributions spread entire political discourse buckley worked colleagues majority respectful submission much disservice first amendment jurisprudence failing acknowledge evaluate whole operation system created buckley first amendment principles surely tell us interest thought compelling reason enacting law cast grave doubt worse evil surfaces law actual operation obligation examine operation law urgent new evil distortion speech measures law us pass serious standard first amendment review among facts declines take account emergence cyberspace communication political contributions reported almost simultaneously payment public judge whether candidate officeholder overstepped longer trust make detached neutral judgment far immediate way assess integrity performance leaders hidden world soft money covert speech officeholders face dilemma inherent democratic process one never easy resolve exercise best judgment soliciting continued support loyalty constituents whose interests may always coincide judgment edmund burke captured tension speeches bristol representative owes industry judgment betrays instead serving sacrifices opinion burke speeches right hon edmund burke burke ed whether officeholders discharge duties proper way beholden certain interests reelection campaign support think constant concern alone citizens conscientious officeholders easy answers constitution relies one open robust honest unfettered speech voters examine assess complex environment ii point view may seem reflection justice thomas written large extent agree insightful careful discussion precedents ensuing chapter must written may well come reasoning seem point conclusion legislature little way imposing limits political speech sort however leave open possibility congress state legislature might devise system limits expenditures contributions thus permitting officeholders concentrate time efforts official duties rather fundraising reasons sought express serious constitutional questions confronted enacting scheme foreclose outset overrule buckley free congress state legislatures attempt new reform based upon considered view first amendment possible reexamination takes place however existing distortion speech caused house created buckley eliminated first amendment allowed take course without obstruction artificial system imposed suffices say law question come even close passing serious scrutiny reasons though substantial agreement justice thomas says opinion thought necessary file separate dissent jeremiah jay nixon attorney general missouri et al petitioners shrink missouri government pac et al writ certiorari appeals eighth circuit january justice thomas justice scalia joins dissenting process ratifying missouri sweeping repression political speech today adopts analytic fallacies flawed decision buckley valeo per curiam unfortunately content merely adhere erroneous precedent guise applying buckley proceeds weaken already enfeebled constitutional protection buckley afforded campaign contributions end employs sui generis test balance away first amendment freedoms errs step takes dissent indicated colorado republican federal campaign comm federal election opinion concurring judgment dissenting part decision buckley error overrule subject campaign contribution limitations strict scrutiny missouri contribution limits patently unconstitutional begin proposition unassailable political speech primary object first amendment protection see mills alabama whitney california brandeis concurring cooley constitutional limitations chafee free speech bork neutral principles first amendment problems ind sunstein free speech bill rights modern state stone epstein sunstein eds founders sought protect rights individuals engage political speech people depends upon free exchange political information free exchange receive protection matters campaigns elective office value efficacy right elect members government depends knowledge comparative merits demerits candidates public trust equal freedom consequently examining discussing merits demerits candidates respectively madison report resolutions writings james madison hunt ed start foundational principles openly disagrees solidly embedded precedents see eu san francisco county democratic central first amendment fullest urgent application speech uttered campaign political office quoting monitor patriot roy brown hartlage free exchange ideas provides special vitality process traditionally heart american constitutional democracy political campaign garrison louisiana peech concerning public affairs essence instead start today abandons nearly half century extended first amendment protection multitude forms speech making false defamatory statements filing lawsuits dancing nude exhibiting movies nudity burning flags wearing military uniforms surprisingly courts appeals followed lead concluded first amendment protects example begging shouting obscenities erecting tables sidewalk refusing wear necktie light many cases sort today decision curious anomaly whatever proper status activities first amendment confident less integral functioning republic campaign contributions yet majority today rather going way protect political speech goes way avoid protecting explain contributions political campaigns generate essential political speech contribution caps place direct substantial limit core speech met utmost skepticism receive strictest scrutiny ii bottom majority refusal apply strict scrutiny contribution limits rests upon buckley discounting first amendment interests stake analytic foundation buckley however tenuous beginning continued erode intervening years remains buckley fails provide adequate justification limiting individual contributions political candidates justify decision upholding contribution limitations striking expenditure limitations buckley explained expenditure limits represent substantial rather merely theoretical restraints quantity diversity political speech buckley valeo contribution limits entai marginal restriction upon contributor ability engage free communication quoted ante drawing distinction buckley relied premise contributing candidate differs qualitatively directly spending money noted hile contributions may result political expression spent candidate association present views voters transformation contributions political debate involves speech someone contributor id see also california medical assn federal election plurality opinion speech proxy contributor seeks achieve contributions sort political advocacy buckley found entitled full first amendment protection faulty distinction ab initio ignored reality speech kinds disseminated even case direct expenditure usually facilitates dissemination spender message instance advertising agency television station call contribution speech proxy thus little differentiate expenditure possible difference contributions involve extra step proxy chain difference form substance colorado republican thomas concurring judgment dissenting part citations omitted inasmuch argument disconnected realities political speech begin surprising firmly rejected since buckley federal election national conservative political action cast aside argument contribution represent constitutionally protected speech contributor recognizing contributors obviously like message hearing organizations want add voices message otherwise part money id though case considered limitations expenditures made associations holding argument fails diminish contributors first amendment rights directly applicable case cases donors seek disseminate information giving organization controlled others contributing citizens see views policy politics articulated short aware however great confidence may justly feel good sense interests effectually promoted another federalist rossiter ed hamilton without assistance argument remainder buckley rationales founder rationales quantity communication contributor increase perceptibly size contribution buckley valeo supra quoted ante size contribution provides rough index intensity contributor support candidate quoted ante contribution serves general expression support candidate views communicate underlying basis support quoted ante still rest proposition speech proxy fully protected contentions simply ignore contribution amplifying voice candidate helps ensure dissemination messages contributor wishes convey absent ability rest denigration contributions mere proxy speech arguments fall apart decision individuals speak contributions rather independent expenditures entirely reasonable political campaigns largely candidate focused candidate driven citizens recognize best advocate candidate policy positions supports tends candidate candidate organizations also offer advantages citizens wishing partake political expression campaign organizations offer convenient means communicating donors wishing support amplify political messages furthermore leader organization candidate strong efficiently expending funds manner maximizes power messages contributor seeks disseminate individual citizens understandably realize may add political discourse giving rather spending donee able put funds productive use individual colorado republican thomas concurring judgment dissenting part see also federal election massachusetts citizens life ndividuals contribute political organization part regard contribution effective means advocacy spending money personal direction end buckley claim contribution limits way infringe contributor freedom discuss candidates issues quoted ante ignores distinct role candidate organizations means individual participation nation civic dialogue result simply suppression political speech depriving donors right speak candidate contribution limits relegate donors points view less effective modes communication additionally limiting contributions curtails individual participation even affluent added costs money time taking newspaper advertisement handing leaflets street standing front one house sign may make difference participating participating public debate city ladue gilleo opinion stevens buckley completely failed attempt provide basis permitting government individual choices citizens partaking quintessentially democratic activities first amendment mandates presume speakers government know best want say say riley national federation blind buckley denigrated speech interests contributors also candidates although purported concerned plight candidates nevertheless proceeded disregard interests without justification even attempt claim contribution limits suppress speech political candidates see ontribution limitations impose direct quantity restrictions political communication association candidates id contribution limitations may significant effect particular challengers incumbents given reality donations mak significant contribution freedom expression enhancing ability candidates present public receive information necessary effective operation democratic process cbs fcc see also citizens rent fair housing berkeley placing limits contributions turn limit expenditures plainly impairs freedom expression instead abstracted candidate individual right speak focused exclusively aggregate campaign funding see buckley valeo supra indication contribution limitations imposed act dramatic adverse effect funding campaigns quoted ante ante showing limitations prevented candidates political committees amassing resources necessary effective quoting buckley valeo supra flawed unsupported aggregate approach ignores rights value individual candidates first amendment designed intended remove governmental restraints arena public discussion putting decision views shall voiced largely hands us hope use freedom ultimately produce capable citizenry perfect polity belief approach comport premise individual dignity choice upon political system rests cohen california emphases added see also sweezy new hampshire plurality opinion form government built premise every citizen shall right engage political expression association richmond croson plurality opinion noted past rights created first section fourteenth amendment terms guaranteed individual rights established personal quoting shelley kraemer short right free speech right held american americans en masse buckley provided basis suppressing speech individual candidate simply candidates candidates aggregate may succeed reaching voting public reasoning fly face premise political system liberty vested individual hands safeguards functioning democracy case hand missouri scheme clear detrimental effect candidate petitioner fredman lacks advantages incumbency name recognition substantial personal wealth managed attract support relatively small number dedicated supporters forbids message reaching voters silencing candidate consequences political debate competition overall see arkansas ed television forbes stevens dissenting noting suppression minor candidate speech may directly affect outcome election cf naacp button political ideas channeled programs two major parties history amply proved virtue political activity minority dissident groups quoting sweezy new hampshire supra plurality opinion view constitution leaves entirely citizens candidates determine shall speak means use amount speech sufficient inform persuade buckley ratification government attempt wrest fundamental right citizens error iii today majority blindly adopts buckley flawed reasoning without much pausing consider collapse argument reality buckley remaining premises fall deprived support ignoring shortcomings proceeds apply something less much less strict scrutiny much less majority never says buckley least purported employ test closest scrutiny quoting naacp alabama ex rel patterson words belied actions however never deployed test fashion superlative instructs see colorado republican thomas concurring judgment dissenting part noting buckley purported apply strict scrutiny failed fact today abandons even pretense reviews contributions sui generis buckley standard scrutiny ante fails obscure ad hoc balancing away first amendment rights apart endorsement buckley rejection intermediate standards review used evaluate expressive conduct time place manner restrictions ante makes effort justify deviation tests traditionally employ free speech cases see denver area ed telecommunications consortium fcc souter concurring reviewing speech regulations fairly strict categorical rules keeps starch standards moments daily politics cries loudest limiting may said unfortunately majority stop revision buckley labels hiding behind buckley discredited reasoning invoking buckley standard scrutiny ante proceeds significantly extend holding case substantive departure buckley begins revision jurisprudence buckley indicated interest qualify compelling area government interest reducing actual apparent corruption repeatedly used word corruption narrow quid pro quo sense meaning erversion destruction integrity discharge public duties bribery favour oxford english dictionary ed see also webster third new international dictionary inducement political official means improper considerations bribery commit violation duty set forth interest preventing actual corruption spoke large contributions given secure political quid pro quo current potential office holders buckley valeo used similar language set forth interest protecting appearance corruption almost equal concern danger actual quid pro quo arrangements impact appearance corruption stemming public awareness opportunities abuse inherent regime large individual financial contributions id later discussing limits independent expenditures yet referred interest protecting dangers actual apparent quid pro quo arrangements id see also id referring danger expenditures given quid pro quo improper commitments id corruption relates special favors may given return contributions sure mentioning quid pro quo transactions went use general terms opportunities abuse id potential abuse id improper influence id attempts influence id buy ing influence id general language acquires concrete meaning light preceding specific references quid pro quo arrangements almost decade buckley reiterated corruption narrow meaning respect contribution limitations individuals corruption subversion political process elected officials influenced act contrary obligations office prospect financial gain infusions money campaigns hallmark corruption financial quid pro quo dollars political favors national conservative political action opinion also used giving official favors synonym corruption id majority today contrast separates corruption quid pro quo roots gives new definition something like perversion anything original state purity oxford english dictionary supra see also webster third new international dictionary supra departure pure correct proceeds define state purity casting aspersions politicians compliant wishes large contributors ante precisely corruption may consist never told assurance national conservative political action supra presumably majority mean politicians free attachments constituent groups majority explicitly rely upon harm buckley rejected hand namely speech regulated equalize voices citizens buckley valeo supra instead without bothering offer elaboration much less justification majority permits vague unenumerated harms suffice compelling reason government smother political speech refashioning buckley goes weaken requisite precision tailoring time representing fiat es relax buckley standard ante fact majority ratifies law much broader sweep approved buckley buckley upheld contribution limits individuals political committees dollars contrast approves much restrictive contribution limitations ranging dollars individuals political committees mo rev stat supp disparity missouri caps upheld buckley pronounced one takes account measure inflation see shrink missouri government pac adams noting according consumer price index dollar today purchases third buckley decided yet opinion gives single indication two laws may differ tailoring see ante missouri caps striking resemblance limitations sustained buckley fails pay regard drastically lower level limits fails explain political committees subjected limits individuals fails explain caps vary size political districts tailored corruption fathom contribution pose substantial risk secur ing political quid pro quo buckley valeo supra thus contribution caps set levels never closely drawn ante quoting buckley valeo supra preventing quid pro quo corruption majority undertakes defense also reworks buckley aggregate approach free speech rights candidates begins track buckley noting showing one affected individual point system suppressed political advocacy unconstitutional buckley ante see also ante claiming candidates still able amass impressive campaign war quoting shrink missouri government pac adams supp ed mo quickly deviates buckley persuading missouri limits suppress political speech prior enactment contribution limits percent contributors candidates state auditor made contributions less ante statistical anecdote offers refuge citizenry comfort initial matter statistic provides assurance missouri law reduced resources supporting political speech since largest contributors provide disproportionate amount funds majority conspicuously offers data revealing percentage funds provided large contributors least buckley relied percentage funds raised contributions excess limits whatever data reveal position remain indefensible majority assumption incorrect missouri contribution limits actually significantly reduce campaign speech majority calm assurance political speech remains unaffected collapses majority assumption correct large contributions provide little assistance candidate seeking get message thus missed capped majority reasoning still falters large contributions offer little help candidate maintains fails explain candidate engage corruption meager benefit majority statistical claim directly undercuts constitutional defense large contributions pose substantial risk corruption given majority illiberal aggregate rights approach unsurprising pro forma hunt suppressed speech proves futile see ante always case courts yardstick judge proper amount effectiveness campaign speech see smith faulty assumptions undemocratic consequences campaign finance reform yale however fret matters first amendment vests choices proper amount effectiveness political advocacy government whether legislatures courts people iv light importance political speech republican government missouri substantial restriction speech warrants strict scrutiny requires contribution limits narrowly tailored compelling governmental interest see buckley american constitutional law foundation thomas concurring judgment colorado republican thomas concurring judgment dissenting part missouri assert contribution caps aimed preventing actual apparent corruption brief petitioners noted preventing corruption appearance corruption legitimate compelling government interests thus far identified restricting campaign finances national conservative political action state contribution limits narrowly tailored harm limits directly suppress political speech contributors candidates clumsily governmental interests allegedly serve crudely tailored massively overinclusive prohibiting donors wish contribute excess cap restricting donations without regard whether donors pose real corruption risk see colorado republican supra thomas concurring judgment dissenting part first amendment rights involved blunderbuss approach prohibits mostly innocent speech held means narrowly precisely directed governmental interest small minority contributions quoting brief appellants buckley valeo nos pp see also martin city struthers though method speaking may blind criminal activities may also useful members society engaged dissemination ideas accordance best tradition free discussion moreover government less restrictive means addressing interest curtailing corruption bribery laws bar precisely quid pro quo arrangements targeted disclosure laws deter actual corruption avoid appearance corruption exposing large contributions expenditures light publicity american constitutional law foundation supra quoting buckley valeo fact missouri enacted strict disclosure laws see mo stat ann supp end contribution limitations find support proposition means effective rooting corruption comes significant infringement fundamental liberties undesirable conduct may deterred insufficient justification sweep vast amounts protected political speech first amendment precedents repeatedly stressed point example martin city struthers supra struck ordinance prohibiting distribution handbills although recognized burglars frequently pose canvassers id also noted distribution useful members society engaged dissemination ideas accordance best tradition free discussion id struck ordinance observing dangers distribution easily controlled traditional legal methods id similarly riley national federation blind struck law regulating fees charged professional fundraisers response assertion citizens defrauded absence law explained state antifraud law presume law enforcement officers ready able enforce id state constitutionally require fundraisers disclose certain financial information ibid concluded acknowledging obvious consequences narrow tailoring requirement efficient means preventing fraud reaffirm simply emphatically first amendment permit state sacrifice speech efficiency ibid see also schneider state town irvington obvious methods preventing littering amongst punishment actually throw papers streets principles apply dictate result contrary one majority reaches free enact laws directly punish engaged corruption require disclosure large contributions free enact generalized laws suppress tremendous amount protected speech along targeted corruption unjustifiably discounts first amendment interests citizens candidates consequently fails strictly scrutinize inhibition political speech competition respectfully dissent footnotes respondents sued members missouri ethics commission missouri attorney general louis county prosecuting attorney shrink missouri government pac adams supp ed mo chief judge bowman also found law invalid contribution limits severely tailored beyond need serve state interest comparing missouri limits considered buckley chief judge said fter inflation limits compare limit approved buckley years ago regarded low allow meaningful participation protected political speech association quoting day holahan cert denied judge ross concurring judgment join portion chief judge bowman opinion judge gibson dissented panel decision ibid quoted language addressed correlative overbreadth challenge point classifying standard scrutiny compare roberts jaycees infringements right associate expressive purposes may justified regulations adopted serve compelling state interests unrelated suppression ideas achieved means significantly less restrictive associational freedoms naacp button decisions consistently held compelling state interest regulation subject within state constitutional power regulate justify limiting first amendment freedoms naacp alabama ex rel patterson tate action may effect curtailing freedom associate subject closest scrutiny arguing buckley standard relaxed respondents shrink missouri fredman suggest candidate like fredman suffers contribution limits favor incumbents challengers brief respondents shrink missouri government pac et al essentially equal protection claim buckley squarely faced found support proposition incumbent advantages leveraged something significantly powerful contribution limitations applicable candidates whether veterans upstarts since relax buckley standard need said respondents argument though note nothing record gives respondents stronger argument buckley petitioners made cf federal election national right work legislative determination need prophylactic measures corruption evil feared first nat bank boston bellotti california medical assn federal election noting buckley held contribution limits served important governmental interests preventing corruption appearance corruption political process might result contributions restrained citizens rent fair housing berkeley buckley identified single narrow exception rule limits political activity contrary first amendment exception relates perception undue influence large contributors candidate see also federal election national conservative political action observing buckley upheld contribution limits constitutional noting deference congressional determination need prophylactic rule evil potential corruption long recognized cf renton playtime theatres first amendment require city enacting ordinance conduct new studies produce evidence independent already generated cities long whatever evidence city relies upon reasonably believed relevant problem city addresses two respondents amici raise different argument contribution limits insufficiently narrow light disclosure requirements bribery laws less restrictive mechanisms dealing quid pro quo threats apprehensions brief pacific legal foundation et al amici curiae specifically rejected notion buckley said laws deal blatant specific attempts money influence government action congress surely entitled conclude disclosure partial measure contribution ceilings necessary legislative concomitant deal reality appearance corruption inherent system permitting unlimited financial contributions even identities contributors amounts contributions fully disclosed buckley valeo per curiam understood contribution limits hand focu precisely problem large campaign contributions narrow aspect political association actuality potential corruption identified leaving persons free engage independent political expression associate actively volunteering services assist limited nonetheless substantial extent supporting candidates committees financial resources ibid reason view contribution limits differently today case however involve claim missouri law restricted access ballot election state auditor similarly data showed less percent tors candidates election missouri secretary state made aggregate contributions excess supp app footnotes unless course prohibition entirely forecloses channel communication use paid petition circulators see meyer grant colorado prohibition paid petition circulators restricts access effective fundamental perhaps economical avenue political discourse direct communication first amendment protects appellees right advocate cause also select believe effective means footnotes new york times sullivan naacp button barnes glen theatre plurality opinion erznoznik jacksonville eichman schacht loper new york city police dept sandul larion one world one family miami beach east hartford education assoc board education east hartford one accept point consider contribution mere symbolic gesture buckley auxiliary arguments still falter claim large contribution receives less protection expresses intensity contributor support candidate buckley valeo per curiam quoted ante fails jurisprudence accorded full first amendment protection expressions intensity see cohen california protecting use obscenity stress point equally unavailing claim contribution warrants less protection communicate underlying basis support buckley valeo supra quoted ante regularly hold speech protected underlying basis position given see city ladue gilleo sign reading peace gulf tinker des moines independent community school black armband signifying opposition vietnam war see also colorado republican federal campaign comm federal election thomas concurring judgment dissenting part even pure message support unadorned reasons valuable democratic process cf hurley gay lesbian bisexual group boston opinion souter narrow succinctly articulable message condition constitutional protection justice stevens asserts oney property speech ante concurring opinion contends first amendment right hire mercenaries hire gladiators ante propositions directly contradicted many precedents example meyer grant opinion stevens confronted state ban payments petition circulators district upheld law finding ban monetary payments restrain expression payors remained free use money ways id disagreed held refusal permit appellees pay petition circulators restricts political expression limit ing number voices convey appellees message hours speak therefore limits size audience reach id short held first amendment protects right pay others help get message cases extended protection holding first amendment prohibits laws ban instead regulate terms upon mercenaries gladiators retained see riley national federation blind holding first amendment prohibits state restriction amount charity may pay professional fundraiser secretary state md joseph munson cf also teachers hudson opinion stevens holding first amendment restrains exactions money abood detroit bd cases resort justice stevens assertion money speech dismiss challenges monetary regulations instead properly examined impact regulations free expression see also federal election national conservative political action first amendment protects political committee expenditures money citizens rent fair housing berkeley first amendment protects monetary contributions political committee first nat bank boston bellotti first amendment protects spend ing money publicize political views even contributions candidate effective means speaking contribution caps left political speech significantly unimpaired ante individual choice mode expression still protected first amendment protects individuals right advocate cause also select believe effective means meyer supra opinion stevens see also glickman wileman brothers elliott souter dissenting noting first amendment interest touting one wares sees fit buckley approach associational freedom also unsound defense decision buckley explained contribution limits leave contributor free become member political association assist personally association efforts behalf candidates quoted ante essence accepted contribution limits alternative channels association remained open justification however peculiar rejected notion law pass first amendment muster simply leaves open opportunities spence washington per curiam although prohibition effect may minuscule trifling person exercise liberty expression appropriate places abridged plea may exercised quoting schneider state town irvington see also texas johnson kusper pontikes even pursuing legitimate interest state may choose means unnecessarily restrict constitutionally protected liberty implicitly however majority downplays reliance upon argument fact majority reprints nearly buckley analysis contributors speech interests block quoting almost entire paragraph decision see ante quoting buckley valeo tellingly complete sentence paragraph majority fails quote final sentence happens one directly setting forth rationale see id contributions may result political expression spent candidate association present views voters transformation contributions political debate involves speech someone contributor buckley explicitly rejected two proffered rationales campaign finance regulation tune first amendment equalization ability citizens affect outcome elections controlling costs campaigns see governmentally imposed equalization measures wholly foreign first amendment id mounting costs elections provid basis governmental restrictions quantity campaign spending framers course thought attachments inevitable free society faction infest political process controlling faction james madison explained two methods removing causes faction one destroying liberty essential existence giving every citizen opinions passions interests federalist rossiter ed contribution caps example first method madison contemptuously dismissed never truly said first remedy worse disease liberty faction air fire aliment without instantly expires less folly abolish liberty essential political life nourishes faction wish annihilation air essential animal life imparts fire destructive agency ibid framers preferred political system harnessed faction good preserving liberty also ensuring good government rather adopting repressive cure faction majority today endorses framers armed individual citizens remedy faction consists less majority relief supplied republican principle enables majority defeat sinister views regular vote id majority statistical analysis also overlooks quantitative data record directly undercut position missouri law create system suppressed political advocacy ante example bother note following imposition contribution limits total combined spending primary general elections five statewide offices cut half falling see app significantly total primary election expenditures races decreased ibid fact contribution limits imposed overall spending statewide primary elections plummeted percent falling ibid importantly majority bother mention spending caps enacted statewide primary elections contested two four candidates vying every nomination caps enacted however primary elections contested overall total number candidates participating statewide primaries fell see ibid even data conclusively show missouri contribution limits diminish political speech although undeniable data strongly suggest result least cast great doubt majority assumption picture rosy