cleveland
board
education
lafleur
argued
october
decided
january
pregnant
public
school
teachers
brought
actions
challenging
constitutionality
mandatory
maternity
leave
rules
cleveland
ohio
chesterfield
county
virginia
school
boards
cleveland
rule
requires
pregnant
school
teacher
take
unpaid
maternity
leave
five
months
expected
childbirth
leave
application
made
least
two
weeks
departure
eligibility
return
work
accorded
next
regular
semester
child
three
months
old
chesterfield
county
rule
requires
teacher
leave
work
least
four
months
give
notice
least
six
months
anticipated
childbirth
guaranteed
later
first
day
school
year
date
declared
schemes
require
physician
certificate
physical
fitness
prior
teacher
return
appeals
reversed
one
holding
chesterfield
county
maternity
leave
rule
constitutional
holding
cleveland
rule
unconstitutional
held
mandatory
termination
provisions
maternity
rules
violate
due
process
clause
fourteenth
amendment
pp
arbitrary
cutoff
dates
obviously
come
different
times
school
year
different
teachers
valid
relationship
state
interest
preserving
continuity
instruction
long
teacher
required
give
substantial
advance
notice
pregnant
pp
challenged
provisions
violative
due
process
since
create
conclusive
presumption
every
teacher
four
five
months
pregnant
physically
incapable
continuing
duties
whereas
teacher
ability
continue
past
fixed
pregnancy
period
individual
matter
school
boards
administrative
convenience
alone
suffice
validate
arbitrary
rules
pp
cleveland
return
provision
also
violates
due
process
arbitrary
irrational
creates
irrebuttable
presumption
mother
whose
good
health
must
medically
certified
fit
resume
work
germane
maintaining
continuity
instruction
precise
point
child
reach
relevant
age
occur
different
time
throughout
school
year
teacher
pp
chesterfield
county
return
rule
free
unnecessary
presumption
comports
due
process
requirements
stewart
delivered
opinion
brennan
white
marshall
blackmun
joined
douglas
concurred
result
powell
filed
opinion
concurring
result
post
rehnquist
filed
dissenting
opinion
burger
joined
post
together
cohen
chesterfield
county
school
board
et
certiorari
appeals
fourth
circuit
charles
clarke
argued
cause
filed
brief
petitioners
philip
hirschkop
argued
cause
petitioner
brief
john
mann
jane
picker
argued
cause
respondents
brief
rita
page
reuss
sidney
picker
samuel
hixon
iii
argued
cause
respondents
brief
frederick
fn
andrew
ruzicho
filed
brief
international
association
official
human
rights
agencies
amicus
curiae
urging
affirmance
philip
tierney
filed
brief
maryland
commission
human
relations
amicus
curiae
urging
reversal
briefs
amici
curiae
urging
affirmance
filed
andrew
miller
attorney
general
walter
ryland
assistant
attorney
general
commonwealth
virginia
gordon
dean
booth
richard
maurer
sidney
davis
delta
air
lines
briefs
amici
curiae
urging
reversal
affirmance
filed
solicitor
general
bork
assistant
attorney
general
pottinger
louis
claiborne
joseph
eddins
beatrice
rosenberg
david
rubin
jerry
anker
national
education
assn
et
al
winn
newman
ruth
weyand
international
union
electrical
radio
machine
workers
theodore
mann
joseph
robison
sylvia
roberts
ruth
bader
ginsburg
melvin
wulf
john
ligtenberg
american
civil
liberties
union
et
al
paul
pigman
margaret
broussard
evelle
younger
attorney
general
elizabeth
palmer
assistant
attorney
general
joanne
condas
deputy
attorney
general
filed
brief
california
department
human
resources
development
amicus
curiae
justice
stewart
delivered
opinion
respondents
petitioner
female
public
school
teachers
school
year
informed
local
school
board
pregnant
compelled
mandatory
maternity
leave
rule
quit
job
without
pay
several
months
expected
birth
child
cases
call
upon
us
decide
constitutionality
school
boards
rules
jo
carol
lafleur
ann
elizabeth
nelson
respondents
junior
high
school
teachers
employed
board
education
cleveland
ohio
pursuant
rule
first
adopted
school
board
requires
every
pregnant
school
teacher
take
maternity
leave
without
pay
beginning
five
months
expected
birth
child
application
leave
must
made
later
two
weeks
prior
date
departure
teacher
maternity
leave
allowed
return
work
beginning
next
regular
school
semester
follows
date
child
attains
age
three
months
doctor
certificate
attesting
health
teacher
prerequisite
return
additional
physical
examination
may
required
teacher
maternity
leave
promised
birth
child
merely
given
priority
reassignment
position
qualified
failure
comply
mandatory
maternity
leave
provisions
ground
dismissal
neither
lafleur
nelson
wished
take
unpaid
maternity
leave
wanted
continue
teaching
end
school
year
mandatory
maternity
leave
rule
however
required
leave
job
march
two
women
filed
separate
suits
district
northern
district
ohio
challenging
constitutionality
maternity
leave
rule
district
tried
cases
together
rejected
plaintiffs
arguments
supp
divided
panel
appeals
sixth
circuit
reversed
finding
cleveland
rule
violation
equal
protection
clause
fourteenth
amendment
petitioner
susan
cohen
employed
school
board
chesterfield
county
virginia
school
board
maternity
leave
regulation
requires
pregnant
teacher
leave
work
least
four
months
prior
expected
birth
child
notice
writing
must
given
school
board
least
six
months
prior
expected
birth
date
teacher
maternity
leave
declared
employment
submits
written
notice
physician
physically
fit
give
assurance
care
child
cause
minimal
interference
job
responsibilities
teacher
guaranteed
later
first
day
school
year
following
date
upon
declared
cohen
informed
chesterfield
county
school
board
november
pregnant
expected
birth
child
april
initially
requested
permitted
continue
teaching
april
school
board
rejected
request
cohen
subsequent
suggestion
allowed
teach
january
end
first
school
semester
instead
required
leave
teaching
job
december
subsequently
filed
suit
district
eastern
district
virginia
district
held
school
board
regulation
violates
equal
protection
clause
granted
appropriate
relief
supp
divided
panel
fourth
circuit
affirmed
rehearing
en
banc
appeals
upheld
constitutionality
challenged
regulation
decision
granted
certiorari
cases
order
resolve
conflict
courts
appeals
regarding
constitutionality
mandatory
maternity
leave
rules
public
school
teachers
ii
long
recognized
freedom
personal
choice
matters
marriage
family
life
one
liberties
protected
due
process
clause
fourteenth
amendment
roe
wade
loving
virginia
griswold
connecticut
pierce
society
sisters
meyer
nebraska
see
also
prince
massachusetts
skinner
oklahoma
noted
eisenstadt
baird
right
free
unwarranted
governmental
intrusion
matters
fundamentally
affecting
person
decision
whether
bear
beget
child
acting
penalize
pregnant
teacher
deciding
bear
child
overly
restrictive
maternity
leave
regulations
constitute
heavy
burden
exercise
protected
freedoms
public
school
maternity
leave
rules
directly
affect
one
basic
civil
rights
man
skinner
oklahoma
supra
due
process
clause
fourteenth
amendment
requires
rules
must
needlessly
arbitrarily
capriciously
impinge
upon
vital
area
teacher
constitutional
liberty
question
us
cases
whether
interests
advanced
support
rules
cleveland
chesterfield
county
school
boards
justify
particular
procedures
adopted
school
boards
cases
offered
two
essentially
overlapping
explanations
mandatory
maternity
leave
rules
first
contend
firm
cutoff
dates
necessary
maintain
continuity
classroom
instruction
since
advance
knowledge
pregnant
teacher
must
leave
facilitates
finding
hiring
qualified
substitute
secondly
school
boards
seek
justify
maternity
rules
arguing
least
teachers
become
physically
incapable
adequately
performing
certain
duties
latter
part
pregnancy
keeping
pregnant
teacher
classroom
final
months
maternity
leave
rules
said
protect
health
teacher
unborn
child
time
assuring
students
physically
capable
instructor
classroom
times
denied
continuity
instruction
significant
legitimate
educational
goal
regulations
requiring
pregnant
teachers
provide
early
notice
condition
school
authorities
undoubtedly
facilitate
administrative
planning
toward
important
objective
continuity
appeals
second
circuit
noted
green
waterford
board
education
pregnant
teacher
provides
board
date
certain
commencement
leave
value
continuity
preserved
arbitrary
leave
date
set
end
fifth
month
calculated
facilitate
planned
orderly
transition
teacher
substitute
date
fixed
closer
confinement
indeed
latter
afford
board
less
time
procure
satisfactory
substitute
omitted
fact
since
fifth
sixth
month
pregnancy
obviously
begin
different
times
school
year
different
teachers
present
cleveland
chesterfield
county
rules
may
serve
hinder
attainment
continuity
objectives
purportedly
designed
promote
example
beginning
fifth
month
pregnancy
lafleur
nelson
occurred
march
thus
required
leave
work
months
left
school
year
even
though
fully
willing
serve
end
term
similarly
continuity
goal
seems
ironic
chesterfield
county
rule
forced
cohen
leave
work
rather
end
semester
january
requested
thus
conclude
arbitrary
cutoff
dates
embodied
mandatory
leave
rules
us
rational
relationship
valid
state
interest
preserving
continuity
instruction
long
teachers
required
give
substantial
advance
notice
condition
choice
firm
dates
later
pregnancy
serve
boards
objectives
well
imposing
far
lesser
burden
women
exercise
constitutionally
protected
freedom
question
remains
whether
cutoff
dates
beginning
fifth
sixth
months
justified
ground
advanced
school
boards
necessity
keeping
physically
unfit
teachers
classroom
doubt
objective
perfectly
legitimate
educational
safety
grounds
despite
plethora
conflicting
medical
testimony
cases
assume
arguendo
least
teachers
become
physically
disabled
effectively
performing
duties
latter
stages
pregnancy
mandatory
termination
provisions
cleveland
chesterfield
county
rules
surely
operate
insulate
classroom
presence
potentially
incapacitated
pregnant
teachers
question
whether
rules
sweep
broadly
see
shelton
tucker
question
must
answered
affirmative
provisions
amount
conclusive
presumption
every
pregnant
teacher
reaches
fifth
sixth
month
pregnancy
physically
incapable
continuing
individualized
determination
teacher
doctor
school
board
particular
teacher
ability
continue
job
rules
contain
irrebuttable
presumption
physical
incompetency
presumption
applies
even
medical
evidence
individual
woman
physical
status
might
wholly
contrary
noted
last
term
vlandis
kline
permanent
irrebuttable
presumptions
long
disfavored
due
process
clauses
fifth
fourteenth
amendments
vlandis
declared
unconstitutional
due
process
clause
fourteenth
amendment
connecticut
statute
mandating
irrebuttable
presumption
purposes
qualifying
reduced
tuition
rates
state
university
said
case
forbidden
due
process
clause
deny
individual
resident
rates
basis
permanent
irrebuttable
presumption
presumption
necessarily
universally
true
fact
state
reasonable
alternative
means
making
crucial
determination
may
state
insists
unmarried
fathers
unsuitable
neglectful
parents
may
also
stanley
parent
children
placed
hands
unmarried
fathers
category
wholly
suited
custody
children
footnotes
omitted
principles
control
decision
cases
us
medical
experts
cases
differed
many
points
unanimously
agreed
one
ability
particular
pregnant
woman
continue
work
past
fixed
time
pregnancy
much
individual
matter
even
assuming
arguendo
women
physically
unable
work
past
particular
cutoff
dates
embodied
challenged
rules
evident
large
numbers
teachers
fully
capable
continuing
work
longer
cleveland
chesterfield
county
regulations
allow
thus
conclusive
presumption
embodied
rules
like
vlandis
neither
necessarily
universally
true
violative
due
process
clause
school
boards
argued
mandatory
termination
dates
serve
interest
administrative
convenience
since
many
instances
teacher
pregnancy
rules
obviate
necessity
determinations
certainly
boards
interest
devising
prompt
efficient
procedures
achieve
legitimate
objectives
area
stated
stanley
illinois
supra
constitution
recognizes
higher
values
speed
efficiency
indeed
one
might
fairly
say
bill
rights
general
due
process
clause
particular
designed
protect
fragile
values
vulnerable
citizenry
overbearing
concern
efficiency
efficacy
may
characterize
praiseworthy
government
officials
less
perhaps
mediocre
ones
omitted
conclude
therefore
neither
necessity
continuity
instruction
state
interest
keeping
physically
unfit
teachers
classroom
justify
sweeping
mandatory
leave
regulations
cleveland
chesterfield
county
school
boards
adopted
regulations
doubt
represent
attempt
achieve
laudable
goal
pass
muster
due
process
clause
fourteenth
amendment
employ
irrebuttable
presumptions
unduly
penalize
female
teacher
deciding
bear
child
iii
addition
mandatory
termination
provisions
cleveland
chesterfield
county
rules
contain
limitations
upon
teacher
eligibility
return
work
giving
birth
school
boards
offer
two
justifications
return
rules
continuity
instruction
desire
certain
teacher
physically
competent
returns
work
case
leave
provisions
question
whether
school
board
goals
legitimate
rather
whether
particular
means
chosen
achieve
objectives
unduly
infringe
upon
teacher
constitutional
liberty
cleveland
rule
teacher
eligible
return
work
beginning
next
regular
school
semester
following
time
child
attains
age
three
months
doctor
certificate
attesting
teacher
health
required
return
additional
physical
examination
may
required
option
school
board
respondents
seriously
challenge
either
medical
requirements
cleveland
rule
policy
limiting
eligibility
return
next
semester
following
birth
provisions
concerning
medical
certificate
supplemental
physical
examination
narrowly
drawn
methods
protecting
school
board
interest
teacher
fitness
requirements
allow
individualized
decision
teacher
condition
thus
avoid
pitfalls
presumptions
inherent
leave
rules
similarly
provision
limiting
eligibility
return
semester
following
delivery
precisely
drawn
means
serving
school
board
interest
avoiding
unnecessary
changes
classroom
personnel
one
school
term
cleveland
rule
however
simply
contain
reasonable
medical
eligibility
provisions
addition
school
board
requires
mother
wait
child
reaches
age
three
months
return
rules
begin
operate
school
board
offered
reasonable
justification
supplemental
limitation
perceive
none
extent
provision
reflects
school
board
thinking
mother
fit
return
point
time
suffers
constitutional
deficiencies
plague
irrebuttable
presumption
termination
rules
presumption
moreover
patently
unnecessary
since
requirement
physician
certificate
medical
examination
fully
protects
school
interests
regard
finally
provision
simply
nothing
continuity
instruction
since
precise
point
child
reach
relevant
age
obviously
occur
different
point
throughout
school
year
teacher
thus
conclude
cleveland
return
rule
insofar
embodies
age
provision
wholly
arbitrary
irrational
hence
violates
due
process
clause
fourteenth
amendment
age
limitation
serves
legitimate
state
interest
unnecessarily
penalizes
female
teacher
asserting
right
bear
children
perceive
constitutional
infirmities
chesterfield
county
rule
school
system
teacher
becomes
eligible
upon
submission
medical
certificate
physician
return
work
guaranteed
later
beginning
next
school
year
following
eligibility
determination
medical
certificate
reasonable
narrow
method
protecting
school
board
interest
teacher
fitness
possible
deferring
return
next
school
year
serves
goal
preserving
continuity
instruction
short
chesterfield
county
rule
manages
serve
legitimate
state
interests
without
employing
unnecessary
presumptions
broadly
burden
exercise
protected
constitutional
liberty
iv
reasons
stated
hold
mandatory
termination
provisions
cleveland
chesterfield
county
maternity
regulations
violate
due
process
clause
fourteenth
amendment
use
unwarranted
conclusive
presumptions
seriously
burden
exercise
protected
constitutional
liberty
similar
reasons
hold
provision
cleveland
return
rule
unconstitutional
accordingly
judgment
affirmed
judgment
reversed
case
remanded
appeals
fourth
circuit
proceedings
consistent
opinion
ordered
footnotes
lafleur
child
born
july
nelson
child
born
august
year
effective
february
cleveland
regulation
amended
provide
teachers
one
year
continuous
service
qualified
maternity
leave
teachers
less
one
year
required
resign
beginning
fifth
month
pregnancy
since
nelson
less
year
service
time
notified
principal
pregnant
school
board
originally
required
resign
teaching
position
school
board
since
conceded
february
amendment
apply
nelson
since
enacted
contract
employment
executed
pursuant
concession
board
placed
nelson
like
lafleur
mandatory
leave
chief
judge
phillips
filed
separate
opinion
dissenting
part
concurring
part
felt
portion
challenged
regulation
requiring
maternity
leave
beginning
fifth
month
pregnancy
constitutional
agreed
majority
however
waiting
period
becoming
eligible
return
teaching
unconstitutional
chesterfield
county
rule
provides
maternity
provisions
notice
writing
must
given
school
board
least
six
months
prior
date
expected
birth
termination
employment
expectant
mother
shall
become
effective
least
four
months
prior
expected
birth
child
termination
employment
may
extended
superintendent
receives
written
recommendations
expectant
mother
physician
principal
superintendent
feels
extension
best
interest
pupils
school
involved
maternity
leave
maternity
leave
must
requested
writing
time
termination
employment
maternity
leave
granted
persons
record
satisfactory
performance
individual
declared
eligible
submits
written
notice
physician
physically
fit
employment
give
full
assurance
care
child
cause
minimal
interference
job
responsibilities
guaranteed
later
first
day
school
year
following
date
individual
declared
eligible
personnel
benefits
accrued
including
seniority
retained
maternity
leave
unless
person
concerned
shall
accepted
employment
school
system
discharged
responsibility
policy
offering
first
vacancy
occurs
individual
declared
eligible
cohen
child
fact
born
may
unlike
cleveland
rule
supra
chesterfield
county
regulation
allows
superintendent
schools
extend
teacher
employment
beyond
normal
cutoff
date
determines
action
best
interests
students
school
involved
see
supra
apart
cases
review
least
three
reported
federal
appellate
opinions
dealing
constitutionality
mandatory
maternity
leave
regulations
compare
green
waterford
board
education
buckley
coyle
public
school
system
invalidating
mandatory
leave
rules
pregnant
public
school
teachers
schattman
texas
employment
upholding
leave
policy
state
agency
opinions
district
courts
dealing
mandatory
maternity
leaves
see
heath
westerville
board
education
supp
sd
ohio
pocklington
duval
county
school
board
supp
md
bravo
board
education
city
chicago
supp
nd
williams
san
francisco
unified
school
district
supp
nd
cal
seaman
spring
lake
park
independent
school
district
supp
monell
department
social
services
supp
sdny
cf
struck
secretary
defense
vacated
remanded
consider
issue
mootness
gutierrez
laird
supp
dc
robinson
rand
supp
dealing
air
force
regulations
requiring
separation
pregnant
personnel
practical
impact
decision
present
cases
may
somewhat
lessened
several
recent
developments
time
teachers
cases
placed
maternity
leave
title
vii
civil
rights
act
stat
et
apply
state
agencies
educational
institutions
march
however
equal
employment
opportunity
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amended
title
vii
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exemptions
pub
stat
shortly
thereafter
equal
employment
opportunity
commission
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guidelines
providing
mandatory
leave
termination
policy
pregnant
women
presumptively
violates
title
vii
cfr
fed
reg
statutory
amendments
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regulations
course
inapplicable
cases
us
affect
like
suits
future
addition
number
federal
agencies
promulgated
regulations
similar
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employment
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discrimination
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workers
regard
sick
leave
policies
see
cfr
civil
service
commission
cfr
office
federal
contract
compliance
see
generally
koontz
childbirth
child
rearing
leave
benefits
comment
love
labors
lost
new
conceptions
maternity
leaves
harv
civ
lib
rev
course
express
opinion
validity
regulations
records
cases
suggest
maternity
leave
regulations
may
originally
inspired
less
weighty
considerations
example
mark
schinnerer
served
superintendent
schools
cleveland
time
leave
rule
adopted
testified
district
rule
adopted
part
save
pregnant
teachers
embarrassment
hands
giggling
schoolchildren
cutoff
date
end
fourth
month
chosen
teacher
began
show
similarly
least
several
members
chesterfield
county
school
board
thought
mandatory
leave
rule
justified
order
insulate
schoolchildren
sight
conspicuously
pregnant
women
one
member
school
board
thought
good
school
system
students
view
pregnant
teachers
kids
say
teacher
swallowed
water
melon
things
like
school
boards
contended
considerations
serve
legitimate
basis
rule
requiring
pregnant
women
leave
work
thus
note
comments
illustrate
possible
role
outmoded
taboos
adoption
rules
cf
green
waterford
board
education
whatever
may
reaction
queen
victoria
time
pregnancy
longer
dirty
word
course
possible
either
premature
childbirth
complications
latter
stages
pregnancy
might
upset
even
careful
plans
teacher
substitute
school
board
nothing
records
indicate
emergencies
handled
others
normal
use
emergency
substitute
teacher
process
see
green
supra
indeed
somewhat
difficult
view
cleveland
mandatory
leave
rule
seriously
furthering
goal
continuity
since
rule
requires
two
weeks
advance
notice
leave
commence
three
medical
witnesses
cleveland
case
sarah
marcus
veners
rutenbeigs
nelson
obstetrician
testified
behalf
respondents
william
weir
petitioners
expert
weir
generally
disagreed
colleagues
potential
effects
pregnancy
teacher
job
performance
noted
pregnancy
individual
matter
prescribed
similarly
two
medical
experts
chesterfield
county
case
leo
dunn
david
forrest
testified
particular
pregnancy
must
managed
individual
matter
cf
benson
handbook
obstetrics
gynecology
ed
curran
equal
protection
law
pregnant
school
teachers
new
england
medicine
comment
mandatory
maternity
leave
absence
policies
equal
protection
analysis
temp
say
means
providing
appropriate
protection
rights
pregnant
teachers
individualized
determination
case
every
circumstance
dealing
cases
maternity
leave
regulations
requiring
termination
employment
firm
date
last
weeks
pregnancy
therefore
occasion
decide
whether
regulations
might
justified
considerations
presented
records
example
widespread
medical
consensus
disabling
effect
pregnancy
teacher
job
performance
latter
days
evidence
showing
firm
cutoffs
reasonable
method
avoiding
possibility
labor
beginning
teacher
classroom
proof
adequate
substitutes
procured
without
least
minimal
lead
time
certainty
dates
upon
employment
begin
school
boards
available
reasonable
alternative
methods
keeping
physically
unfit
teachers
classroom
example
require
pregnant
teacher
submit
medical
examination
school
board
physician
simply
require
teacher
submit
current
certification
obstetrician
ability
continue
work
indeed
evaluating
physical
ability
teacher
return
work
school
board
case
relies
upon
precisely
procedures
see
nn
supra
see
also
text
infra
clear
factual
hypothesis
presumption
mother
physically
fit
return
work
child
reaches
age
three
months
neither
necessarily
universally
true
see
benson
supra
patient
may
return
full
activity
employment
course
progress
fourth
fifth
week
normal
cf
comment
love
labors
lost
new
conceptions
maternity
leaves
harv
civ
lib
course
may
cleveland
rule
based
upon
another
theory
new
mothers
busy
children
within
first
three
months
allow
return
work
viewed
light
rule
remains
conclusive
presumption
whose
underlying
factual
assumptions
hardly
said
universally
valid
virginia
rule
also
requires
teacher
give
assurance
care
child
unduly
interfere
job
duties
requirement
within
potential
abuse
evidence
record
assurance
required
anything
routinely
sought
employers
prospective
employees
worker
willing
devote
full
attention
job
duties
evidence
record
school
authorities
routinely
accept
woman
assurance
ability
return
justice
powell
concurring
result
concur
result
unable
join
opinion
view
cases
decided
ground
mandatory
maternity
leave
regulations
impair
right
bear
children
create
irrebuttable
presumption
seems
equal
protection
analysis
appropriate
frame
reference
regulations
undoubtedly
add
burdens
childbearing
certainly
every
government
policy
burdens
childbearing
violates
constitution
limitations
welfare
benefits
family
may
receive
take
account
size
family
illustrate
point
see
dandridge
williams
undoubtedly
congress
another
example
constitutionally
seek
discourage
excessive
population
growth
limiting
tax
deductions
dependents
represent
intentional
governmental
effort
penalize
childbearing
see
ante
regulations
purpose
deterrent
impact
wholly
incidental
intentional
efforts
penalize
childbearing
constitutional
dandridge
supra
means
think
certainly
regulations
invalid
infringement
right
procreate
also
troubled
return
irrebuttable
presumption
line
analysis
stanley
illinois
powell
participating
vlandis
kline
although
joined
opinion
vlandis
continue
fully
support
result
reached
present
cases
caused
irrebuttable
presumption
rationale
led
conclusion
approach
doctrine
extreme
care
much
justice
rehnquist
says
dissenting
opinion
post
implications
doctrine
traditional
legislative
power
operate
classification
matter
logic
difficult
see
terminus
road
upon
embarked
banner
irrebuttable
presumptions
nevertheless
uses
irrebuttable
presumption
reasoning
selectively
concept
root
often
something
else
masquerading
due
process
doctrine
something
else
course
equal
protection
clause
cases
present
precisely
kind
problem
susceptible
treatment
classification
school
teachers
women
certain
percentage
pregnant
given
time
pregnancy
normal
biological
function
possessing
great
majority
cases
fairly
well
defined
term
constitutional
difficulty
boards
attempted
deal
problem
classification
rather
boards
chose
irrational
classifications
range
possible
school
board
goals
emerge
cases
several
may
put
one
side
records
us
abound
proof
principal
purpose
behind
adoption
regulations
keep
visibly
pregnant
teachers
sight
schoolchildren
boards
advance
today
legitimate
objective
yet
initial
primacy
casts
shadow
cases
moreover
rationalizations
proposed
boards
unsupported
records
boards
emphasize
teacher
absenteeism
classroom
discipline
safety
schoolchildren
safety
expectant
mother
unborn
child
doubt
legitimate
concerns
boards
failed
demonstrate
interests
fact
threatened
continued
employment
pregnant
teachers
sure
boards
legitimate
important
interest
fostering
continuity
teaching
even
normal
pregnancy
may
point
jeopardize
interest
classifications
chosen
boards
far
shown
either
counterproductive
irrationally
overinclusive
even
regard
significant
nonillusory
goal
accordingly
opinion
regulations
invalid
standards
equal
protection
review
speaking
continuity
teaching
boards
referring
part
valid
interest
reducing
number
times
new
teacher
assigned
given
class
particularly
appropriate
avoid
teacher
turnover
middle
semester
since
continuity
teaching
approach
well
relationships
otherwise
impaired
aspect
cleveland
regulation
limiting
teacher
eligibility
return
classroom
semester
following
delivery
approves
ante
rationally
serves
legitimate
state
interest
prebirth
leave
periods
two
regulations
provision
cleveland
regulation
points
ante
cutoff
points
likely
prevent
continuity
teaching
preserve
cutoff
dates
occur
throughout
school
year
inevitably
result
removal
many
capable
teachers
classroom
middle
near
end
semester
thus
provoking
disruption
boards
hope
avoid
boards
reference
continuity
teaching
also
encompasses
need
assure
constant
classroom
coverage
teachers
task
interest
obviously
legitimate
one
disputes
school
board
must
concern
physical
emotional
capabilities
teachers
objectionable
portions
regulations
appear
bottomed
factually
unsupported
assumptions
ability
pregnant
teachers
perform
jobs
overwhelming
weight
medical
testimony
adduced
cases
teachers
undergoing
normal
pregnancies
quite
capable
carrying
responsibilities
point
short
period
prior
term
certainly
boards
made
little
effort
contradict
conclusion
thus
appears
forcing
pregnant
teachers
undergoing
normal
pregnancy
classroom
far
advance
term
regulations
compel
large
numbers
teachers
quit
work
policies
inhibit
rather
goal
continuity
teaching
apparent
reason
remove
teachers
students
require
use
substitutes
boards
reliance
goal
continuity
teaching
also
takes
account
obvious
planning
needs
boards
must
know
pregnant
teachers
temporarily
cease
teaching
responsibilities
substitutes
may
scheduled
fill
vacancies
planning
requires
notice
pregnancy
fixed
termination
date
appears
however
termination
date
serves
purpose
choice
cutoff
date
produces
several
months
forced
unemployment
thus
wholly
unnecessary
planning
boards
certainly
nothing
records
cases
contrary
reasons
believe
linkage
boards
legitimate
ends
chosen
means
attenuated
support
portions
regulations
overturned
thus
concur
result
think
important
emphasize
degree
latitude
read
left
boards
dealing
real
recurrent
problems
presented
teacher
pregnancies
boards
may
demand
every
case
substantial
advance
notice
pregnancy
ante
subject
certain
restrictions
may
require
pregnant
teachers
cease
teaching
firm
date
last
weeks
pregnancy
holds
boards
may
cases
restrict
teaching
outset
school
term
following
delivery
opinion
rules
pregnant
teachers
constitutional
traditional
equal
protection
standards
school
boards
confronted
sensitive
widely
variable
problems
public
education
must
accorded
latitude
operation
school
systems
adoption
rules
regulations
general
application
san
antonio
independent
school
district
rodriguez
large
measure
discretion
essential
effective
discharge
duties
vested
local
often
elective
governmental
units
concern
opinion
carried
logical
extremes
emphasis
individualized
treatment
war
need
discretion
indeed
stringent
insistence
individualized
treatment
may
quite
impractical
large
school
district
thousands
teachers
despite
reservations
rationale
majority
nevertheless
conclude
cases
gap
legitimate
interests
boards
particular
means
chosen
attain
wide
restructuring
generally
along
lines
indicated
opinion
seems
unavoidable
accordingly
concur
result
see
ante
reach
question
whether
classifications
invoke
strict
judicial
scrutiny
frontiero
richardson
whether
regulations
involve
sex
classifications
whether
challenged
aspects
regulations
constitute
sex
classifications
disability
classifications
must
least
rationally
serve
legitimate
articulated
obvious
state
interest
indeed
legitimate
state
interests
stake
shown
rationally
furthered
challenged
portions
regulations
teachers
undergo
abnormal
pregnancies
may
well
disabled
either
temporarily
substantial
period
read
boards
may
deal
abnormal
pregnancies
like
disability
ante
one
may
question
however
whether
planning
needs
well
served
mere
gap
notice
departure
set
forth
cleveland
regulation
brief
notice
cleveland
board
allowed
casts
doubt
board
reliance
planning
needs
language
specify
particular
prebirth
cutoff
point
need
decide
issue
boards
attempted
support
dates
light
language
however
think
prebirth
period
acceptable
agree
view
stringent
standards
board
must
meet
justify
reasonable
prebirth
cutoff
date
see
ante
nothing
constitution
mandates
heavy
burden
justification
imposed
boards
regard
school
boards
must
base
policies
widespread
medical
consensus
reasonable
method
accomplishing
goal
demonstration
needed
services
otherwise
impossible
obtain
may
seriously
handicapped
performance
duties
notes
cases
arose
prior
recent
amendment
extending
title
vii
civil
rights
act
et
state
agencies
educational
institutions
pub
stat
see
ante
like
address
impact
title
vii
mandatory
maternity
leave
regulations
justice
rehnquist
chief
justice
joins
dissenting
rests
invalidation
school
regulations
involved
cases
due
process
clause
fourteenth
amendment
rather
claim
sexual
discrimination
equal
protection
clause
amendment
brother
stewart
thereby
enlists
another
quixotic
engagement
apparently
unending
war
irrebuttable
presumptions
cases
told
although
regulation
requiring
termination
employment
firm
date
last
weeks
pregnancy
ante
might
pass
muster
regulations
challenged
requiring
termination
end
fourth
fifth
month
pregnancy
violate
due
process
law
chief
justice
pointed
dissent
last
year
vlandis
kline
literally
thousands
state
statutes
create
classifications
permanent
duration
less
perfect
legislative
classifications
might
improved
individualized
determinations
hundreds
years
ago
england
parliament
came
thought
body
general
lawmaking
power
controversies
determined
individualized
basis
without
benefit
general
law
students
government
consider
shift
sort
determination
made
ad
hoc
basis
king
representative
relatively
uniform
body
rules
enacted
body
exercising
legislative
authority
significant
step
forward
achievement
civilized
political
society
seems
little
late
day
weigh
established
consensus
countless
state
federal
statutes
draw
lines
drawn
regulations
analysis
might
well
prove
arbitrary
individual
cases
district
columbia
code
example
draws
lines
respect
age
several
purposes
code
requires
person
eligible
vote
years
age
male
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marriage
may
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alcoholic
beverages
sold
person
age
years
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light
wines
person
age
years
resident
district
columbia
must
years
age
obtain
permit
operate
motor
vehicle
district
columbia
delegate
congress
must
years
old
nothing
opinion
clearly
demonstrates
logic
equally
well
sustain
challenge
laws
insists
well
informed
voting
purposes
insists
able
carry
liquor
numerous
persons
fall
outside
lines
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similar
statutes
closely
point
jeopardy
opinion
places
longstanding
statutes
providing
mandatory
retirement
government
employees
title
provides
respect
civil
service
employees
except
otherwise
provided
section
employee
becomes
years
age
completes
years
service
shall
automatically
separated
service
requires
argument
show
right
work
living
common
occupations
community
essence
personal
freedom
opportunity
purpose
amendment
secure
said
williamson
lee
optical
bears
repeating
legislation
involves
drawing
lines
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lines
necessarily
results
particular
individuals
disadvantaged
line
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virtually
indistinguishable
many
purposes
individuals
benefit
legislative
classification
disenchantment
irrebuttable
presumptions
preference
individualized
determination
last
analysis
nothing
less
attack
upon
notion
lawmaking
lines
drawn
school
boards
city
cleveland
chesterfield
county
cases
require
pregnant
teachers
take
forced
leave
stage
pregnancy
medical
evidence
seems
suggest
majority
might
well
able
continue
teaching
without
significant
possibility
physical
impairment
far
aware
medical
evidence
also
suggests
cases
may
physical
impairment
stage
pregnancy
fastened
regulations
question
probability
physical
impairment
increases
pregnancy
advances
legislative
bodies
permitted
draw
general
line
anywhere
short
delivery
room
find
judicial
standard
measurement
says
ones
drawn
invalid
therefore
dissent
code
ann
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