girouard
argued
march
decided
april
homer
cummings
william
donnelly
washington
petitioner
frederick
bernays
wiener
providence
respondent
justice
douglas
delivered
opinion
petitioner
native
canada
filed
petition
naturalization
district
massachusetts
stated
application
understood
ciples
government
believed
form
government
willing
take
oath
allegiance
stat
reads
follows
hereby
declare
oath
absolutely
entirely
renounce
abjure
allegiance
fidelity
foreign
prince
potentate
state
sovereignty
heretofore
subject
citizen
support
defend
constitution
laws
america
enemies
foreign
domestic
bear
true
faith
allegiance
takew
obligation
freely
without
mental
reservation
purpose
evasion
help
god
question
application
necessary
willing
take
arms
defense
country
replied
seventh
day
adventist
explained
answer
examiner
saying
purely
religious
matter
political
personal
reasons
claim
selective
service
board
exemption
military
service
combatant
military
duty
hearing
district
petitioner
testified
member
seventh
day
adventist
denominat
approximately
serving
armed
forces
especially
medical
corps
willing
serve
army
bear
arms
district
admitted
citizenship
circuit
appeals
reversed
one
judge
dissenting
took
action
authority
schwimmer
macintosh
bland
saying
facts
present
case
brought
squarely
within
principles
cases
case
petition
writ
certiorari
granted
authorities
might
schwimmer
macintosh
bland
cases
involved
present
one
question
statutory
construction
time
cases
congress
required
alien
admission
citizenship
declare
oath
open
support
defend
constitution
laws
enemies
foreign
domestic
bear
true
faith
allegiance
also
required
satisfied
alien
five
year
period
immediately
proceeding
date
application
man
good
moral
character
attached
principles
constitution
well
disposed
good
order
happiness
provisions
reenacted
present
law
substantially
form
factual
distinctions
case
schwimmer
macintosh
cases
bland
case
facts
indistinguishable
principle
emerging
three
cases
obliterates
factual
distinction
among
recognized
summers
stand
general
alien
refuses
bear
arms
admitted
citizenship
original
proposition
agree
rule
fallacies
underlying
think
demonstrated
dissents
justice
holmes
schwimmer
case
chief
justice
hughes
macintosh
case
oath
required
aliens
terms
require
promise
bear
arms
congress
expressly
made
finding
prerequisite
citizenship
hold
required
read
act
implication
assume
congress
intended
make
abrupt
radical
departure
traditions
unles
spoke
unequivocal
terms
bearing
arms
important
way
institutions
may
supported
defended
even
times
great
peril
total
war
modern
form
dramatizes
never
great
cooperative
effort
necessary
victory
nuclear
physicists
developed
atomic
bomb
worker
lathe
seaman
cargo
vessels
construction
battalions
nurses
engineers
litter
bearers
doctors
made
essential
contributions
many
made
sacrifice
justice
holmes
stated
schwimmer
case
page
page
quakers
done
share
make
country
annals
recent
war
show
many
whose
religious
scruples
prevented
bearing
arms
nevertheless
unselfish
participants
war
effort
refusal
bear
arms
necessarily
sign
disloyalty
lack
attachment
institutions
one
may
serve
country
faithfully
devotedly
though
religious
scruples
make
impossible
shoulder
rifle
devotion
one
country
real
enduring
among
among
combatants
one
may
adhere
deems
obligation
god
yet
assume
military
risks
secure
victory
effort
war
indivisible
whose
religious
scruples
prevent
killing
less
patriots
whose
special
traits
handicaps
result
assignment
duties
far
behind
fighting
front
making
utmost
contribution
according
capacity
fact
role
may
limited
religious
convictions
rather
physical
characteristics
necessary
bearing
attachment
country
willingness
support
defend
utmost
petitioner
religious
scruples
disqualify
becoming
member
congress
holding
public
offices
article
vi
clause
constitution
provides
officials
several
bound
oath
affirmation
support
constitution
significantly
adds
religious
test
shall
ever
required
qualification
office
public
trust
oath
required
material
respect
different
prescribed
aliens
naturalization
act
long
contained
provision
support
defend
constitution
enemies
foreign
domestic
bear
true
faith
allegiance
take
obligation
freely
without
mental
reservation
purpose
evasion
chief
justice
hughes
stated
dissent
macintosh
case
page
page
history
struggle
religious
liberty
large
number
citizens
country
beginning
unwilling
sacrifice
religious
convictions
particular
conscientiously
opposed
war
yield
sincerely
believed
allegiance
considerations
make
impossible
conclude
persons
deemed
disqualified
public
office
country
requirement
oath
must
taken
enter
upon
duties
slightest
suggestion
congress
set
stricter
standard
aliens
seeking
admission
ship
officials
make
enforce
laws
nation
administer
affairs
hard
believe
one
need
forsake
religious
scruples
become
citizen
sit
high
councils
state
chief
justice
hughes
pointed
macintosh
supra
page
page
religious
scruples
bearing
arms
recognized
congress
various
draft
laws
true
selective
training
service
act
stat
appendix
earlier
acts
inducted
armed
services
takes
oath
includes
provision
bear
true
faith
allegiance
america
serve
honestly
faithfully
enemies
whomsoever
stat
congress
thus
recognized
one
may
adequately
discharge
obligations
citizen
rendering
well
combatant
services
respect
congress
ears
conscience
religious
scruples
bearing
arms
cogent
evidence
meaning
oath
recognition
congress
even
time
war
one
may
truly
support
defend
institutions
though
stops
short
using
weapons
war
construction
naturalization
oath
received
new
support
second
war
powers
act
stat
iv
congress
relaxed
certain
requirements
aliens
served
honorably
armed
forces
world
war
ii
provided
machinery
expedite
naturalization
residence
requirements
relaxed
educational
tests
eliminated
fees
required
change
oath
made
change
made
requirement
alien
attached
principles
constitution
yet
clear
new
provisions
cover
well
combatants
petitioner
served
willing
admitted
citizenship
taking
identical
oath
willing
take
oath
means
one
thing
one
served
extent
permitted
religious
scruples
another
thing
one
equally
willing
serve
opportunity
enough
say
petitioner
entitled
benefits
new
act
since
serve
armed
forces
seeking
benefits
expedited
procedure
relaxed
requirements
oath
must
take
identical
oath
combatants
must
take
indeed
strange
construction
say
defend
constitution
laws
america
enemies
foreign
domestic
demands
something
others
oath
hardly
adequate
one
unwilling
bear
arms
religious
scruples
yet
exact
another
promise
bear
arms
despite
religious
scruples
justice
holmes
stated
schwimmer
case
pages
page
principle
constitution
imperatively
calls
attachment
principle
free
free
thought
agree
us
freedom
thought
hate
think
adhere
principle
regard
admission
well
life
within
country
struggle
religious
liberty
centuries
effort
accommodate
demands
state
conscience
individual
victory
freedom
thought
recorded
bill
rights
recognizes
domain
conscience
moral
power
higher
state
throughout
ages
men
suffered
death
rather
subordinate
allegiance
god
authority
state
freedom
religion
guaranteed
first
amendment
product
struggle
recently
stated
ballard
thought
includes
freedom
religious
belief
basic
society
free
men
west
virginia
state
board
education
barnette
test
oath
abhorrent
tradition
years
congress
meticulously
respected
tradition
even
time
war
sought
accommodate
military
requirements
religious
scruples
individual
believe
congress
intended
reverse
policy
came
draft
naturalization
oath
abrupt
radical
departure
traditions
implied
see
schneiderman
cogent
evidence
necessary
convince
us
congress
took
course
conclude
schwimmer
macintosh
bland
cases
state
correct
rule
law
met
however
argument
even
though
cases
wrongly
decided
congress
adopted
rule
announced
argument
runs
follows
many
efforts
made
amend
law
change
rule
announced
cases
every
instance
bill
died
committee
moreover
new
naturalization
act
passed
congress
reenacted
oath
form
though
time
made
extensive
changes
requirements
procedure
naturalization
argued
congress
adopted
reenacted
rule
schwimmer
macintosh
bland
cases
cf
apex
hosiery
leader
stated
helvering
hallock
require
persuasive
circumstances
enveloping
congressional
silence
debar
examining
doctrines
best
treachrous
find
congressional
silence
alone
adoption
controlling
rule
law
think
circumstances
legislative
history
properly
place
shoulders
congress
burden
error
history
act
equivocal
contains
affirmative
recognition
rule
schwimmer
macintosh
bland
cases
si
ence
congress
inaction
consistent
desire
leave
problem
fluid
adoption
silence
rule
cases
us
enough
say
since
date
cases
congress
never
acted
affirmatively
question
time
noted
congress
specifically
granted
naturalization
privileges
like
petitioner
prevented
bearing
arms
religious
scruples
affirmative
recognition
one
attached
principles
government
support
defend
even
though
religious
convictions
prevented
bearing
arms
said
believe
oath
designed
exact
something
one
person
another
thus
affirmative
action
taken
congress
negatives
inference
otherwise
might
drawn
silence
reenacted
oath
reversed
justice
jackson
took
part
consideration
decision
case
chief
justice
stone
dissenting
think
judgment
affirmed
reason
applying
controlling
provisions
naturalization
statutes
correctly
applied
earlier
construed
whose
construction
congress
adopted
confirmed
three
cases
decided
fifteen
years
ago
denied
citizenship
applicants
naturalization
announced
proposed
take
scribed
oath
allegiance
reservation
qualification
naturalized
citizens
assist
defense
country
force
arms
give
moral
support
government
war
believe
morally
justified
best
interests
country
see
schwimmer
macintosh
bland
cases
held
applicant
failed
meet
conditions
congress
made
prerequisite
naturalization
naturalization
act
june
stat
provisions
relevant
enacted
nationality
act
october
see
stat
amended
act
march
stat
act
december
stat
et
et
section
naturalization
act
paragraph
provided
admission
citizenship
applicant
declare
oath
open
support
defend
constitution
laws
enemies
foreign
domestic
bear
true
faith
allegiance
paragraph
required
admission
made
appear
satisfaction
admitting
alien
citizenship
least
period
five
years
immediately
preceding
application
applicant
behaved
man
good
moral
character
attached
principles
constitution
well
disposed
good
order
happiness
applying
provisions
cases
mentioned
held
applicant
unable
take
oath
allegiance
without
reservations
qualifications
insisted
upon
applicants
cases
manifests
want
attachment
principles
constitution
unwillingness
meet
requirements
oath
support
defend
constitution
bear
true
faith
allegiance
comply
statutory
conditions
naturalization
question
constitutional
power
congress
withhold
citizen
hip
grounds
involved
power
doubted
see
selective
draft
law
cases
arver
hamilton
regents
question
construction
statute
congress
times
free
amend
dissatisfied
construction
adopted
three
justices
dissented
macintosh
bland
cases
reasons
adopts
ground
overruling
since
three
considered
earlier
opinions
rejected
construction
statute
dissenting
justices
contended
question
decisive
present
case
whether
congress
likewise
rejected
construction
subsequent
legislative
action
adopted
confirmed
earlier
construction
statutes
question
study
congressional
action
taken
respect
proposals
amendment
naturalization
laws
since
decision
schwimmer
case
leads
conclude
congress
adopted
confirmed
earlier
struction
naturalization
laws
reason
alone
think
judgment
affirmed
construction
naturalization
statutes
adopted
three
cases
mentioned
immediately
became
target
active
publicized
legislative
attack
congress
persisted
period
eleven
years
adoption
nationality
act
two
days
schwimmer
case
decided
bill
introduced
house
give
naturalization
act
construction
contrary
given
adopted
made
applicants
rejected
schwimmer
macintosh
bland
cases
eligible
citizenship
effort
establish
congressional
action
construction
placed
naturalization
act
one
congress
adopted
intended
renewed
without
success
decision
macintosh
bland
cases
continued
period
ten
years
measures
substantially
pattern
introduced
december
first
session
congress
decision
macintosh
case
provided
person
otherwise
qualified
debarred
citizenship
reason
religious
views
philosophical
opinions
respect
lawfulness
war
means
settling
international
disputes
every
alien
admitted
citizenship
shall
subject
obligation
citizen
introduced
immediately
decision
schwimmer
case
contained
like
provision
omission
last
clause
beginning
every
alien
hearings
house
committee
immigration
naturalization
bills
proponents
stated
clearly
purpose
set
aside
interpretation
placed
oath
allegiance
schwimmer
macintosh
case
opposition
occasion
bills
identical
introduced
three
later
congresses
none
bills
reported
committee
proposals
failed
passage
see
ante
purpose
differed
phraseology
thus
six
successive
congresses
period
decade
continuously
pending
congress
one
form
another
proposals
overturn
rulings
three
decisions
question
congress
declined
adopt
proposals
full
hearings
speeches
floor
advocating
change
meantime
decisions
followed
clarke
case
beale
warkentin
beale
supra
pointed
proposed
amendments
affecting
provisions
statutes
relating
admission
citizenship
failed
saying
must
conclude
therefore
statutory
requirements
construed
congressional
sanction
approval
doubts
purpose
congress
seem
dissipated
reenactment
congress
paragraphs
naturalization
act
incorporation
act
form
oath
administratively
prescribed
applicants
schwimmer
macintosh
bland
cases
see
rule
naturalization
regulations
july
nationality
act
comprehensive
slowly
matured
carefully
considered
revision
naturalization
laws
preparation
measure
delegated
congressional
committee
considered
committee
cabinet
members
one
attorney
general
aware
decisions
schwimmer
related
cases
question
pertinent
naturalization
laws
persistently
continuously
congress
ten
years
following
decision
schwimmer
case
modifications
provisions
paragraphs
act
show
conclusive
careful
attention
given
fact
legislative
history
congress
alter
act
bee
judicially
construed
enactment
congress
legislation
implicitly
recognizes
judicial
construction
effective
persuasive
legislative
recognition
judicial
construction
correct
one
application
statute
brought
forth
sharply
conflicting
views
congress
matter
fully
brought
attention
public
congress
latter
seen
fit
change
statute
apex
hosiery
leader
see
like
effect
ryan
elgin
state
missouri
ross
cf
helvering
winmill
responsibility
congress
reenacting
statute
make
known
purpose
controversial
matter
interpretation
former
language
least
matter
decade
persistently
brought
attention
light
legislative
history
abundantly
clear
congress
performed
duty
case
lightly
implied
congress
failed
perform
delegated
responsibility
giving
new
content
language
deliberately
readopted
construed
us
make
assumption
discourage
deny
legislative
responsibility
thus
adopting
confirming
construction
congress
enacted
naturalization
act
congress
gave
construction
legal
significance
though
written
words
act
remaining
question
whether
congress
repealed
construction
enactment
ments
nationality
act
act
extended
special
privileges
applicants
naturalization
aliens
served
armed
forces
time
war
dispensing
modifying
existing
requirements
relating
declarations
intention
period
residence
education
fees
left
unchanged
requirements
applicant
behavior
show
attachment
principles
constitution
take
oath
allegiance
adopting
amendments
congress
question
oath
allegiance
concerned
adopted
act
concerned
grant
special
favors
seeking
naturalization
worn
uniform
rendered
military
service
time
war
satisfy
naturalization
requirements
dispensed
amendments
case
entitled
avail
privileges
congress
left
naturalization
authorities
cases
determine
whether
applications
conduct
military
service
satisfy
requirements
naturalization
waived
pointed
one
amendments
iv
provided
provisions
amendment
apply
conscientious
objector
performed
military
duty
whatever
refused
wear
uniform
said
implication
provision
conscientious
objectors
rendered
noncombatant
service
wore
uniform
amendments
admitted
citizenship
argued
since
amendments
apply
noncombatant
well
combatant
military
service
amendment
must
taken
include
rendered
noncombatant
service
also
conscientious
objectors
admitted
citizenship
amendments
even
though
made
reservations
oath
allegiance
applicants
schwimmer
macintosh
bland
cases
said
although
amendments
applicable
petitioner
military
service
oath
mean
one
thing
another
noncombatant
service
suggestions
two
answers
one
amendment
construed
including
noncombatants
also
conscientious
objectors
unwilling
take
oath
without
reservations
made
applicants
schwimmer
macintosh
bland
cases
effect
exempt
noncombatant
conscientious
objectors
requirements
oath
clearly
made
applicable
objectors
including
petitioner
nationality
act
petitioner
exempted
amendments
construction
act
constitutional
statutory
obstacle
congress
taking
action
congress
saw
fit
admitted
citizenship
rendered
noncombatant
service
modified
oath
without
oath
petitioner
exempted
since
petitioner
never
military
naval
forces
need
decide
whether
amendments
authorized
different
oath
noncombatant
service
others
amendments
construed
requiring
oath
without
reservations
conscientious
objectors
others
nielsen
rendered
noncombatant
service
wereconscientious
objectors
others
noncombatant
service
announced
scientious
objections
combatant
service
may
waived
abandoned
objections
experience
first
world
war
see
concerning
treatment
conscientious
objectors
army
prepared
published
direction
secretary
war
june
taken
oath
without
reservations
made
applicants
schwimmer
macintosh
bland
cases
entitled
benefits
amendments
provided
performed
military
duty
refused
wear
uniform
fact
congress
recognized
indirection
iv
appeared
role
conscientious
objectors
might
become
citizens
taking
oath
allegiance
establishing
attachment
principles
constitution
show
congress
dispensed
requirements
oath
construed
plainly
confirmed
congress
nationality
act
necessary
inconsistency
respect
act
amendments
without
repeal
implication
favored
borden
state
georgia
pennsylvania
alkali
export
amendments
legislative
history
give
hint
purpose
congress
relax
least
persons
rendered
military
service
requirements
oath
allegiance
proof
attachment
constitution
interpreted
nationality
act
plainly
required
interpreted
function
disregard
congress
exercise
constitutional
power
justice
reed
justice
frankfurter
join
opinion
footnotes
naturalization
act
stat
id
already
set
forth
opinion
present
form
oath
required
found
nationality
act
stat
sec
act
provides
person
shall
naturalized
unless
stated
periods
still
person
good
moral
character
attached
principles
constitution
well
disposed
good
order
happiness
sec
provides
part
contained
act
shall
construed
require
person
subject
combatant
training
service
land
naval
forces
reason
religious
training
belief
conscientiously
opposed
participation
war
form
person
claiming
exemption
combatant
training
service
conscientious
objections
whose
claim
sustained
local
board
shall
inducted
land
naval
forces
act
assigned
noncombatant
service
defined
president
shall
found
conscientiously
opposed
participation
noncombatant
service
lieu
induction
assigned
work
national
importance
civilian
direction
earlier
acts
see
act
february
stat
act
january
stat
act
june
stat
act
may
stat
see
billings
truesdell
army
regulations
august
sec
ii
comparable
provision
made
act
december
stat
iv
served
honorably
world
war
spanish
american
war
mexican
border
kinloch
involved
naturalization
proceedings
aliens
one
like
petitioner
present
case
seventh
day
adventist
inducted
army
combatant
naturalization
opposed
immigration
service
ground
promise
bear
arms
overruled
objection
stating
page
conscientious
objectors
aliens
performing
military
duty
wearing
uniform
anted
privileges
citizenship
act
act
meaningless
made
applicant
conscientious
objector
attained
status
soldier
performs
military
duty
honorably
wears
uniform
admitted
instant
cases
denied
citizenship
oath
allegiance
construed
requiring
applicant
agree
without
mental
reservation
bear
arms
result
denial
citizenship
even
though
congress
conferred
privilege
upon
see
sawyer
opinion
writer
evidence
schwimmer
district
presumably
infer
applicant
behavior
evidenced
disposition
present
future
actively
resist
laws
lawful
commands
officers
furthering
military
enterprise
actively
aid
encourage
resistance
others
district
presumably
concluded
evidenced
want
attachment
applicant
principles
constitution
naturalization
law
requires
exhibited
behavior
applicant
preceding
application
citizenship
cong
rec
hearings
pp
hearings
pp
hearings
pp
hearings
pp
sess
sess
sess
section
nationality
act
provides
person
shall
naturalized
unless
period
five
years
preceding
filing
petition
naturalization
still
person
attached
principles
constitution
well
disposed
good
order
happiness
section
nationality
act
provides
applicant
naturalization
shall
admitted
citizenship
shall
take
oath
open
inter
alia
defend
constitution
laws
enemies
foreign
domestic
bear
true
faith
allegiance